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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



BY 

CHARLES MCCARTHY, Ph.D., Litt.D., 

Legislative Reference Librarian, Madison, Wisconsin 

FLORA SWAN, A.B. 

Director of Practice, Public Schools, Indianapolis, Indiana 

A N I ) 

JENNIE McMULLIN, A.M. 

Legislative Reference Library, Madison, Wisconsin 



THOMPSON, BROWN & COMPANY 
NEW YORK CHICAGO BOSTON 



^2 



Copyright 1916 
By THOMPSON, BROWN & COMPANY 



JUL -8 1916 

©O.A437218 



PREFACE 

We have not attempted to carry our any stereotyped 
idea of a text hook in Civics. Our aim has been to give 
the child of the upper grammar grades such an understand- 
ing of his relation ro other people as mil make him a | 
citizen. Thai understanding can come only with a knowl- 
edge of rlu- difficulties the human race has had in learning 
to live and work together. An appreciation of the advan- 
tages to him of the present stage ( >f ation can he 
gained only with a knowledge of rlu- slow and patient steps 
which have brought us to that A zeal foi carrying 
the human race still Further Forward in its ability to live 

and work together can he inspired in the hearts of all our 
children only when the advantages of the present and tin- 
future are made to stand out against tin- disadvantages of 
the past. It is Faith that we all need; and by faith we 

mean the belief that We can bring to pass rlu good We desire 
for the human race, 

We have told the store, therefore, of a few of tin- 
smith's which our ancestors have had in order to obtain 
and transmit to us some of the things which we now con- 
sider essential to our comfort and happiness. The child 
can grasp the idea of a mountain as early as he can grasp 
the phenomenon of erosion on that mountain. In the same 
way, he can grasp the great movements of socu ty as easily 
as he can grasp the petty derails iA~ township or county 
organization. Big things, if taught as simply, an 
to grasp as little things. If the child is ever to have the 
proper perspective he must see the great background 
against which the little details stand out. 

We cannot afford to wait for the High School to pro- 



iv PREFACE 

vide the background, for that would bar all but the few. 
We cannot afford to leave it to the continuation schools, 
for they may be too busy and they, like the High School, 
do not reach all. We cannot afford to trust the child who 
has been studying history through the grades to make his 
own connection of that history with the present. But 
somewhere in the grades, before he is lost to the school 
world, we must help him to make it. That is what this 
book attempts to do. 

It is not supposed that the pupils will be expected to 
memorize facts from this book. The chapters are for read- 
ing and discussion, and most of the questions call for 
thought and investigation rather than memorization. Some 
of the questions may be regarded as too difficult for some 
pupils. However, they will be suggestive to the teacher, who 
must use her own judgment as to the application. A com- 
parison between American institutions and those foreign in- 
stitutions out of which they have grown is made as often as 
possible. It cannot be done too often. No matter if the pupil 
does go to High School and to the University, and studies his- 
tory, sociology and civil government, we do not fear that he 
can ever have too much of this sort of training for citizenship. 

The authors desire to express their gratitude to Dr. 
Albert Leonard, Superintendent of Schools, New Rochelle, 
N. Y., Dr. John L. Tildsley, Principal of the High School 
of Commerce, New York, Howard Strong, Secretary of the 
Minneapolis Civic and Commercial Association, for the time 
and care they have given to reviewing this manuscript, and 
for the helpful criticisms they have offered. 

Charles McCarthy. 
Flora Swan. 
Jennie McMullin. 



CONTENTS 



PACE 

LKTBODUCTIOW vii 

A WOBD TO mi BOY! kMD GOU WHO Ki\i< Tin - BOOS ix 

< II.WTKR 

I. I.i\ DfO TOOl rin k 

II. H<.\\ I NO! \m> W ; 

•mi World. 

III. Tim [ND1 mi\i RXVOL1 [TOE \m> IB BALLOT 11 

iv. Wmv w i Von i' 

V. PlOM mi ( ' W I DWELLER 1" MOO 

\ i. Hmw mi Cm Doi - 1 1- Work. 

\ II. II..W mi Cm I' IZLLfl 

Yin. Tm City's Hi u m. 

IX. Tin Cm Bl \i rin i . " 

x. How mi Stati Does its Woi l 

xi. How Tin i'mm d States Doa 1 1 ■ \\ qei 
xii. Justice, no 

XIII. I'm < \iio\. 
XI\'. I'.I IK II \. v 

XV. Organized Efforts roR \ Higher Civilization. 171 

APPENDIX 

I. Chart 01 OSOANIZATIOM 01 Tin GOVEENMENT 01 CHS lOO, 
II. "Why vm ChTCAOO VOTES B D \/i D '". 

III. Pubi rc Oma u a for whom E ice m u i i'i i croi m Chb ioo m w 

Von 

IV. Public Officials roi Whom Each Woman Elector m Can \ 

\i w V on i-q 

V, Budget oi Cm oi Xrw Yore, 1914-1915... 180 

VI. Health Okdin INCES 01 I.i tela, Ohio 181 

v 



vi CONTENTS 

APPENDIX p A GE 

VII. Public Hygiene Ordinances, etc., of Roanoke, Va., Seattle, 
Wash., Fargo, N. D., Nashville, Tenn., Elyria O., and 

Saginaw, Mich ' 190 

VIII. Indiana Housing Laws 196 

IX. Constitution of the United States 197 

X. Bonded Debts of the States 210 

XI. Chart Showing Acreage of All Land in Farms Classified by 

Character of Tenure of Operator 211 

XII. Student's Health Creed of Indiana 212 

XIII. Indiana Needs 213 

XIV. Enforce Personal Responsibility 213 

XV. Fire Prevention Questionnaire 214 

XVI. Fire Don'ts 215 

XVII. Fires Due to Carelessness 216 

XVIII. Fire Losses Here and in Germany 216 

XIX. Personal Safety on the Streets .217 

XX. Suggested Material for the Study of Government 218 

XXI. List of References for Teachers and Pupils 219 

Index 225 



INTRODUCTION 



On the whole the teaching of civics in our public 
schools has been disappointing. I lure have been bril- 
liant exceptions. I cachets, imaginative and resource till, 
have here and (here hit upon stimulating methods. Pupils 

have- been taken to visit local institutions and have been 

led to examine tin- administration of them. In one town 

tlu school garden area is apportioned in accordance with 
the provisions of the Federal land law. In many places 
elections are held with all the formalities «>t legal balloting. 

Devices like these OUght not in themselves to be oxer- 
estimated. They are significant of new ideals and a new 

spirit. The best teachers are rebelling against conventional 
methods and traditional text-books. Until recently these 

texts have dealt with the technicalities of political ma- 
chinery. I he vast majority <>t teachers have lacked the 
proper perspective and the first-hand contacts with com- 
munity life and its problems. 

A new conception is making its way into the teaching 
of citizenship. It is the philosophy of social evolution. 
Institutions are seen not as static, but as the outcome 
of past conditions, as serving a social purpose in a given 

situation, then as gradually modified in adjustment to 
inw problems. This evolutionary point (A view, which 
has transformed all the sciences and is so essential to an 
interpretation of social development, has been too <. \- 
clusively a conception of higher, to some extent of secondary, 
education. 



viii INTRODUCTION 

Moreover, political activities have been thought of too 
much as existing in and for themselves. There seems to 
have been an idea that governmental affairs could some- 
how be understood apart from the economic and social 
life of city, state, or nation. This fallacy of abstraction 
has too generally made civics a detached,- mechanical, 
rather dull pursuit. There has been little appeal to im- 
agination, and a failure to establish the causal connections 
which give any study vividness and vitality. 

The present volume represents an attempt to make 
the study of government interesting and significant. The 
why as well as the how is emphasized. An historical 
background for modern conceptions of political activity 
is suggested. The concrete problems which have been 
forced upon city and state by the Industrial Revolution 
are presented in such a way as to command attention 
and challenge reflection. The community is represented 
as a living, growing, changing thing which is constantly 
reshaping and extending its political machinery to serve 
its changing and widening purposes. 

The attempt to present these ideas to pupils in the 
upper grades of the elementary school is distinctly worth 
while. The authors have rendered a notable service in 
preparing a volume which ought to stimulate the new 
spirit of social interpretation, and provide the definite, 
concrete material with which such interpretation must 
deal. All friends of social science and all who are in- 
terested in the efficient teaching of civics in the public 
schools will warmly welcome this little book. 

George E. Vincent. 

The University of Minnesota 
April 8, 1916 



A WORD TO THE BOYS AND GIRLS WHO READ 
THIS BOOK 

One hundred and thirty years ago, at the close of the 
American Revolution, Josiah Tucker, the learned Dean of 
Gloucester, said " As to the future grandeur of America, 
and its being a rising empire, under one head, whether 
republican or monarchical, it is one of the idlest and most 
visionary notions that ever was conceived even by writers 
of romance. The mutual antipathies and clashing interests 
of the Americans, their difference of governments, habi- 
tudes and manners indicate that they will have no centre 
of union and no common interest. They never can be united 
into one compact empire under any species of government 
whatever; a disunited people till the end of time, suspicious 
and subdivided into little commonwealths or principalities, 
according to natural boundaries, by great bays of the sea 
and by vast rivers, lakes and ridges of mountains." 

Every country and every age has its Josiah Tucker. 
Maybe you yourself are a Josiah Tucker. If you are, 
study this little book and stop being one. We want to 
produce men and women for America who will never say 
about a thing that is good, " It can't be done "; but who 
will say, " Let us see if somewhere it is not already done; 
if it is, we will learn there how to do it; if it is not, we 
will never stop until we ourselves find the way." 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



CHAPTER I 
LIVING TOGETHER 

The Strong Despoil the Weak. The savage family slept 
peacefully in its cave. They were all dreaming of the 
feast of deer's meat they were to have on the morrow. 
While they dreamed, a big cave dweller from the neighbor- 
ing hills slunk through the dark woods towards the cave. 
A few minutes later he slunk back into the woods, bearing 
a heavy burden. When the family awoke there was con- 
sternation. Their feast had disappeared. It was the big 
robber again, they knew at once. It was too much. Three 
times they had been raided by this thief. 

But what could they do? He was so strong that if the 
father of the family attacked him, the father would surely 
be killed, and then who would hunt deer for the family? 
The cave mother had a bright idea. " The next cave 
dweller," said she, " is not quite so strong as you. Why 
don't you compel him to help you fight that giant? You 
could conquer him, and together you could manage the 
giant." 

" I'll do it," said the cave father, and he started at once. 

The Weak Combine Against the Strong. The scheme 
worked smoothly. When the cave father had conquered 



2 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

his weaker neighbor and the two together had the giant 
in their power, they decided that the giant might be a 
valuable ally against other enemies. So the three agreed 
to consider themselves as relatives, and to form a clan 
which would conquer other hostile individuals or groups. 

Thus a strong man was made to respect the rights of 
the weak; and the strong and the weak alike learned that 
what an individual cannot do, the collected strength of 
many can do. 

Civilization. States Grow Larger. When we study history, 
we study the steps which the human race has taken in 
learning to live together. We call the progress it makes 
" civilization." If we could continue to watch our savages, 
we should see that they progress in three directions. At 
first, the family group that slept in the cave was against 
every other family group, and expected attacks from other 
family groups at any time. The family was a little state 
all by itself. But by and by we find that this family has 
conquered or been conquered by another family or families, 
and that they all live peaceably with each other while at 
war with everyone else. The state has thus become a larger 
group; a clan. Follow them far enough down the road 
of civilization and you will find that clans have been welded 
into larger groups called tribes. Follow still further and 
you will find the tribes organized into cities, then cities 
organized into nations, and finally nations organized into 
great empires like the British and Russian empires today. 
Thus the number of people who can live peaceably together 
in one state is increasing; the state is growing larger. 

More and More of the Citizens Desire to Take Part in 
Government. Our savages are progressing in a second way. 



LIVING TOGETHER 3 

All the families in the neighborhood had suffered from the 
raids of the big cave man, but one family took the lead in 
his punishment, and that family became the ruling family 
of the clan. Follow the clan a little further and you will 
find that other families wish to help in making the plans as 
well as in doing the fighting. They think that if coopera- 
tion is more efficient than individual effort in fighting, it 
will also be more efficient in planning. 

Activities of the State Constantly Widen. 1 he re is still a 
third direction in which our savages are progressing. \\ hen 

the two pursued the thief they were cooperating for tin- pur- 
pose of protection against violence. As time has pa 
they and their descendants — and we are their descendants 
— have learned to cooperate for many purposes other than 
protection against physical violence. 

Three little children were playing " house M not long 
ago. A big chair stood where they wanted to locate then 
garden. Each tot tried again and again to move the chair. 
Finally two of them accidentally pushed it at the same time. 
They were surprised to see it move. They had learned a 
lesson in cooperation. Just so older people have learned 
to cooperate in order to build comfortable houses, good 
roads, and schools, to fight dirt and disease, and to do 
hundreds of things which they can do better together than 
they can do separately. 

Our histories have emphasized the stories of the struggle 
of states to grow larger. We are going to spend most of 
our time talking about the progress we are making within 
the state, in extending self-government to more and more 
citizens of the state and in learning to do more and more 
things together which we once did separately. Before we 



4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

are ready to think about ourselves, however, we need to 
refresh our minds with the story of how we come to have 
self-government instead of one-man rule. 

The Difficulties of Self-government. Self-government is 
easy in the family, because the group is small. Father, 
mother, and the older children can come together to talk 
things over. It is harder for the city, because it is more 
difficult for its citizens to come together to talk things over. 
It is still harder in a nation. The ancient Greeks learned 
how to let all the free men of the city take part in the 
government of the city so long as their number permitted 
them to assemble in one meeting place. The Romans 
founded a larger state than the Greeks had done, and they 
were unable to work out a plan by which all the free men 
of the empire could take part in governing themselves, In 
many cities of the Roman Empire the free men governed, 
but that was the extent of democracy in the Roman Empire. 

Since it was so difficult to have self-government in a 
large state, how does it happen that although the world 
is being united into larger and larger states, these states 
are growing more democratic ? 

Self-government in a Large State Made Possible By the 
Representative System. The device which made that possible 
is representative government, i.e., government through a 
small number of people selected by the real rulers, the mass 
of the people, to put into operation the will of the latter. 
For this device we are indebted to the Teutonic immigrants 
into the Roman Empire. Different groups of these Teutons, 
such as the French, the Dutch and the Germans have 
worked out various forms of representative government- 
The form which is most copied by the rest of the world, 



LIVING TOGETHER 5 

however, is the form which was worked out by the group 
which settled in the island of Britain, now England. That 
is why we have to study England a while before we are 
ready to understand our own or any other form of govern- 
ment. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER I 

i. What is civilization? 

2. Are you civilized? Prove it. 

3. What are the three directions in which civilization has moved? 

4. In which stage is your state the family, clan, tribe, city, or nation 
stage? Prove it. Give examples of people in each of the other stages. 

5. Would you rather be in the family stage or the nation stage? Why? 

6. What do we call a state in which one person is permitted by the people 
to manage their affairs? Would you like to live in a state like that? Why? 

7. What do we call a state in which many of the people help to manage 
their affairs? Would you like to live in a state like that? Why? In which 
of these two states would the amount of intelligence used in government 
be greater? Why? 

8. Would you be ruled better by a king? 

9. Read this description of the great ruler of the Roman Empire, Marcus 
Aurelius, by the historian Bury: 

" To come to the aid of the weak, to mitigate the lot of slaves, to facilitate 
manumission, to protect wards, were the objects of Marcus as of hie prede- 
cessor." 

Now read this paragraph from West's Ancient World: 

" The five good emperors end with Marcus Aurelius. His son, Corn- 
modus, was an infamous wretch who repeated the crimes and follies of the 
worst of his predecessors. He was finally murdered by his officers." 

Which is better, a monarchy or a democracy? Why? 



CHAPTER II 

HOW ENGLAND WORKED OUT REPRESENTATIVE 
GOVERNMENT FOR THE WORLD 

The English. Nobody sat down and thought out the 
scheme of representative government and then put it into 
practice. The English stumbled upon it, in a way. The 
English consist of a layer of Celts whom the Romans con- 
quered and civilized, and then three layers of Teutons, 
or Germans. The first German layer was put on in the 
fifth century when the Angles, Saxons and Jutes migrated 
to England; the second set of Germans, the Danes, arrived 
in the ninth century, just as the first set had succeeded in 
welding itself into one group and had absorbed much of 
the Roman civilization which they found there. Three 
hundred years later, in 1066, when the Danes and Saxons 
had become one nation, the third and last Germanic people, 
the Normans, arrived. As each people had come, they had 
found the inhabitants united under landlords to whom and 
to whose castles they looked for protection against the 
invaders. Each conquest meant a change of landlords, 
for the conquerors took the castles and lands into their 
possession. So when the Normans came in 1066, William 
the Conqueror turned out the landlords and made his own 
friends lords of the castles as fast as he took possession of 
them. 

Self-government for the English Landlords. It had been 
the custom among the German tribes before they moved into 

6 



BEGINNINGS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 7 

the Roman Empire, and it continued to be their custom 
afterwards, for the leader or king to call together all the 
chief men of the tribe for consultation on important matters, 
such as deciding upon war, and determining the amount of 
provisions to be furnished by each. Since these chief men 
were given the large estates, they became great landlords; 
so that when the king called together his great council he 
really called a meeting of all the landlords. In the feudal 
period, practically everyone held land from a lord, so that 
the king thus reached everyone in his kingdom. When 
the king had subdued England thoroughly, he began to 
make war upon other countries: upon France, and upon the 
Turks. On account of these distant wars the necessity 
for calling the Great Council became more frequent, as did 
the demands upon the landlords for money in place of 
provisions. Some of the great landlords began to sell 
off their land in order to get money to go to war or 
to buy the comforts and luxuries with which contact 
with Europe and Asia made them acquainted. Thrifty 
peasants thus had a chance to become small land- 
owners. 

Representation for the Small Fanner. Much land was sold, 
and the small landowners were freed from the power of the 
landlords. Consequently, when the king called together a 
Great Council of his landlords, there was a large number 
of peasant owners whom he never reached. This would 
not do, but of course not all these small landowners could 
be called in: the assembly would be too large. As a solu- 
tion to this problem in 1253 the small landowners in each 
county were directed to send one of their number to meet 
with the great landlords. 



8 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

Representation for the Property Owners in the Towns. 
Meanwhile, other people besides the farmers were becoming 
independent of the landlords. Domestic and foreign trade 
was developing and an ever increasing number were leaving 
the land and gathering together into groups to make things 
to sell. Towns thus sprang up everywhere and the towns- 
people often secured their independence from their land- 
lord by buying or forcing charters of privilege from him. 
Thus the landlords were not free to tax them and when 
the king called together his Great Council, he was no longer 
able to reach all the people in his kingdom. Conse- 
quently, in 1265 the property owners in the towns were 
directed to send one or more of their number to the Great 
Council to meet with the great landlords and with the 
representatives of the small landlords. Gradually the 
representatives of towns and small landowners cliqued 
together and it became the custom for matters to be pre- 
sented to the great landlords in one room or house and to 
the representatives of the small landowners and property 
owners of the towns in another room. Thus developed the 
House of Landlords, or Lords, and the House of Commons. 

Objection of Farmers and Townsmen to Representation. 
At first the small landowners and townspeople did not like 
to send representatives, because they could not see that 
they benefited by it. Every time they were called they 
knew they were going to be asked for money. Neither did 
the men selected like to go; in fact, there are cases on 
record of their running away and having to be brought 
back by the sheriff* and forced to serve. 

Growing Popularity of Representative Government. Soon, 
however, they found out that sending representatives was 



BEGINNINGS OF REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT 9 

not entirely bad. If the king asked them for money, they 
could make a bargain with him. You have read in the 
constitution of the United States man}' things which seem 
to you to have little meaning; the rights of members of 
Congress to be free from arrest during the session and in 
going to and returning from it; the rights of freedom of 
speech and of the press; the right of petition; the right 
not to have soldiers quartered in your house in time of 
peace, and many others. Practically all these fundamental 
rights were originally not rights at all, but simply one side 
of a bargain made with the king; they were the privileges 
which the English king sold to the people through their 
representatives in return for the money which the repre- 
sentatives promised the king from the people. On account 
of these bargains, the people came to cherish this system 
of representation. 

Defects. The system was rude and imperfect. Usually 
the well-to-do classes in the towns were organized into 
guilds which selected the representatives. The rest of the 
population, unorganized and poor, had nothing to say about 
it. Their representation was unfairly distributed. Little 
towns were represented and big ones were not. Within the 
towns only a few could vote. This was true in the Ameri- 
can colonies as well as in England. By the latter part of 
the eighteenth century there was a loud demand for better 
representation. The people wanted to vote for represent- 
atives, and they wanted the representatives to be fairly 
distributed. This demand was increased by that greatest 
event of modern times — the Industrial Revolution. How 
man)' of you know what is meant by the Industrial Revo- 
lution ? Some of you know more about the French Revolu- 



io ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

tion than you do about the Industrial Revolution, and yet 
the Industrial Revolution is far more important to most 
of you. 

The Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution is 
the change from the use of hand power to the use of water, 
steam and other forms of power, together with the changes 
in living which have come from this change in industry. 
The Industrial Revolution has had so much to do with 
making the world more democratic, that we need a sepa- 
rate chapter to show how it has done it. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER II 

i. Name the countries which have representative government. 

2. Name the countries which have democratic government. What is 
the difference between representative and democratic government? What 
is the relation between the two? 

3. What has become of the Great Council which the English king used to 
call together? 

4. Why did the great landlords help the king to rule? 

5. How did the small farmers come to help the king and the landlords 
to rule? 

6. How did the well-to-do townspeople come to help the king and the 
landowners to rule? 

7. What was the origin of the House of Commons? 

8. Why did the farmers and townsmen not want to have anything to do 
with government at first? Why did they change their minds? Do you know 
any people like them now? 

9. Would democratic government be possible in a state the size of the 
United States without the use of the representative system. 

10. In order to have democratic government, is it necessary to have 
everybody vote on every question of government? Is it necessary that each 
one should vote on the question of the number of men required to man a 
battleship? On the kind of trees to be planted in a park in his vicinity? 
Why? 



CHAPTER III 

THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE BALLOT 

No matter in which of the forty-eight states of the 
United States you live, your father, if he is a citizen, can 
vote. If you live in one of eleven states your mother 
likewise can vote. You yourself will vote when you have 
reached the legal age. How do you come to have this 
right? We must go back again to England to find out; 
back to the beginning of the Industrial Revolution there. 

Why the Workmen Wanted to Vote. The Industrial Revo- 
lution helped to bring about political revolution in this way. 
The use of water power and steam power made machinery 
so big and expensive that it took the work out of the homes 
into buildings called factories; and men who had been work- 
ing at home with their little tools had to give them up 
and go into the factory. Thus the number of men who 
belonged to a guild and had some property in the shape of 
a shop and tools, decreased; and the number of detached 
workers increased. These workmen without property real- 
ized how much had been gained in the past from the king 
through representation. Gradually they came to under- 
stand that great numbers of them must always work in some 
one else's factory, using some one else's tools, during the 
hours when they were expected to work, without any hope 
of individually owning their own tools and work-place; 
that is, without any hope of becoming capitalists. They 



12 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

began to see that they needed in some way to control the 
conditions under which they worked; that there were things 
which they needed to get from the men who owned the land 
and factories and that if they were represented in Parlia- 
ment, their representatives could bargain with the repre- 
sentatives of the property-owning classes just as the repre- 
sentatives of the property-owning classes had bargained 
with the king. So they began to agitate for the right to 
vote for representatives. They tried to secure this right 
at first by peaceful organization and agitation. Not suc- 
ceeding in this, they resorted to burning haystacks, break- 
ing windows and barricading streets. 

Effort to Obtain the Privilege. In 1832 they succeeded in 
obtaining a uniform property qualification for towns and 
counties somewhat lower than it had been in most places 
before; in 1867 after a long struggle, the qualification was 
again lowered; again in 1864; ana * the probabilities are 
that by this time every sane man in England would be able 
to vote for members of the House of Commons if the war 
had not interrupted the agitation for manhood suffrage as 
well as the agitation for woman suffrage. 

The Desire for the Ballot Spreads to the Women. But the 
ballot agitation does not end there. The same industrial 
revolution which took the work of the men out of their 
homes into the factory, has also taken the work of the 
women out of the homes into the factory. The women 
have been forced, like the men, only more slowly, to follow 
their work from the home to the factory. As they have 
gone into the workshop, they have found themselves con- 
fronted by the same problems of long hours, low wages, and 
bad sanitation which have confronted the men. The women 



THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE BALLOT 13 

have been slower to react under it, partly because many of 
them stay in the industry only a short time before they 
marry, and so do not have the same interest in permanent 




The Schoolhouse as a Voting Place (Los Angeles) 

improvement of working conditions as the men, who know 
that they are going to stay with the industry; partly because 
the married woman at home, even though she may want 
to improve the conditions in which her husband and chil- 



14 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

dren work, finds it hard to reach other women and work 
cooperatively to that end. But they are gradually over- 
coming the obstacles in the way of organization, and learning 
to work together, instead of separately, for their common 
good; and the demand for the right to vote for representa- 
tives who may bargain for them is only one manifestation 
of increasing skill in the business of learning to live together. 

The Desire for the Ballot Extends to Asia and India. The 
desire to vote is not confined to English men and English 
women. Throughout the nineteenth century the Italians, 
the French, the Germans, the Russians, in fact all the 
peoples of Europe have striven in their own countries for 
the right to vote. Today the same struggle is going on in 
the countries of Asia — in China, and in India. When we 
assume a superior attitude toward these " foreigners " we 
are likely to forget that seventy-five years ago white male 
citizens were working for the ballot in the states of the 
United States, in many of which property ownership or 
membership in a certain church was required of the voter. 
Thus we find that everywhere, as people grow more intelli- 
gent, they have opinions about their community life which 
they want to express by the use of the ballot. 

The Struggle to Wrest Power from the Represented Classes. 
Just as the two houses called Parliament labored with the 
English king to wrest powers from him, so the unrepresented 
classes of England and every other country have been and 
are laboring with the represented classes to wrest power 
from them. At the same time, in England, the two houses 
of Parliament have been struggling with each other; the 
one house working all the time in the interest of the small 
landowners and the well-to-do townspeople, and the other 



THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION AND THE BALLOT 15 

house, the House of Lords, working in the interest of the 
landlords. The result of this struggle over the power of 
making and enforcing laws is the system known as the 
responsible ministry or cabinet system. This system we 
shall describe in the next chapter, which shows why we 
vote in parties. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER HI 

1. What was the Industrial Revolution? Is it still going on? Prove it. 

2. In what ways has the Industrial Revolution been a bad thing? In 
what ways a good thing? 

3. How would your home be different if the Industrial Revolution had 
not occurred? 

4. What have been the effects of the Industrial Revolution upon: 

(a) The men? c The old people? 

(b) The women? d The children? 

5. Why has the Industrial Revolution made people more anxious to take 
part in government than they were before? 

6. Does your father care to vote? Why? 

7. Do you want to vote? Why? Would you have fought for the right 
to vote if you had lived when men were righting for it? 

8. What laws have we which would not have been passed if workingmen 
had not had the right to vote? 

9. Why is it more difficult for women to organize to secure what they 
want than for men to do it? 

10. Would it be possible for every man, if he were industrious and careful, 
to own his own tools and place of work and thus to control the conditions 
in which he works? 

n. Are most great factories owned by one person or by many persons? 
What do we call the persons who own an interest in large businesses? Do 
those who work in the factories usually own an interest in the business? 
What do we call the system by which the employees receive a share of the 
profits? Suppose the employees owned all the stock in the corporation, 
what would we call the enterprise? Give examples of these three forms of 
organization? 



CHAPTER IV 
WHY WE VOTE IN PARTIES 

How Parties Originate. Do we have things our own way 
as soon as we have the right to vote for what we want ? Not 
by any means. As soon as we can vote, we have to go in 
search of more people whose purposes are similar to ours. 
We cannot find people who desire everything which we 
would bring to pass, but we can find people who desire 
some of these things. When we have found them, we form 
an organization with them. This organization we call a 
party. Then we make out a list of our common objects. 
This list is the platform of the party. Then we try to 
elect to office men who will support the items in that list. 
If our party is successful, we may be able to secure some 
of those things. At the next election, perhaps another 
party will be successful, and carry out some of the planks 
in its platform. 

In talking about party government, we have to return 
again to England, because it is there that this scheme, like 
many other aids to democracy, has been most highly 
developed. In the first place you need to remember that 
the king of England has bargained away, as we described 
before, practically all of his power. He cannot even veto 
a law, as our President can. In the second place the House 
of Lords has lost most of its power. Its consent is no 
longer required for the enactment of a law. Some of you 
may remember the story of how this came about. 



WHY WE VOTE IN PARTIES 17 

How the House of Commons Controls the House of Lords. 
It happened in this way. In the year 1909 the Liberal 
party had a majority in the House of Commons. They 
introduced through the Chancellor of the Exchequer, Mr. 
David Lloyd George, a bill to raise money by levying 
taxes upon gasoline, automobiles, and land and by increas- 
ing the tax on inheritances. The bill passed the House of 
Commons and went to the House of Lords. There was 
great excitement there. The taxes would fall heavily upon 
practically every member of the House of Lords. Men 
who had never taken an interest in politics came up to 
London to fight it. Members who had been helpless 
invalids for years were wheeled in chairs into the House 
of Lords and down the aisles to vote against this attack 
upon their property rights. The bill was defeated. A new 
election for the House of Commons was held. The newly 
elected House of Commons passed the same bill. The 
Liberals in the House of Commons insisted that the king 
should create a sufficient number of new members of the 
House of Lords who would favor the bill to pass it. The 
Lords, fearing that this would be done, surrendered. A 
majority of them voted for the bill and it became a law. 

How the House of Lords Lost Its Veto Power. But the 
House of Commons was not content. There were other 
thing? which the party in power wanted, such as Home 
Rule for Ireland, and universal manhood suffrage. These 
they believed the Lords would not grant. To have to 
resort to coercion of the king every time was a nuisance. 
For years radicals in the lower House had been introducing 
bills for the abolition of the upper House. Now a bill was 
introduced to take away from the Lords their right of abso- 



18 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

lute veto and leave them merely a suspensive veto. By its 
terms a bill might be rejected twice by the Lords and be thus 
postponed for two years, but when passed by three successive 
sessions of the House of Commons, it would become a law 
without the consent of the Lords. . Anxious to escape with- 
out being altogether abolished, the Lords accepted the bill. 
With the House of Lords and the king helpless, the House 
of Commons really makes the laws for the country. 

The Cabinet. Yet it is not exactly the House of Com- 
mons which makes the laws, but rather the party which is 
in the majority in the House of Commons. That party 
not only makes the laws, but it also enforces them. That 
member of the House of Commons who is the leader of the 
party which is in power is appointed by the king as his 
principal assistant or " prime minister " to administer the 
laws. In reality he is the real executive of England and not 
the king. This prime minister selects other leaders from 
his party to help him administer the affairs of the nation. 
This is the English cabinet. They divide up their work 
into departments; for example, one of them, the Chancellor 
of the Exchequer, looks after the finances of the nation, 
another looks after colonial affairs, and so on. 

Its Responsibility to the House of Commons. > Since the 
members of the English cabinet are the leaders of the 
party, they are entrusted by the party with the duty of 
working out and presenting to Parliament the chief bills 
which come before it. Since these ministers are members 
of Parliament, they come before the two Houses to explain 
the bills — what they are and why they have presented them 
as they are. The members of Parliament can also call 
their ministers before them and demand an explanation 



WHY WE VOTE IN PARTIES 19 

of anything they are doing. When a member of the 
cabinet no longer represents the will of the majority, the 
majority can vote for and secure his dismissal. Every 
member of the cabinet is thus held responsible to Parlia- 
ment for everything he does. That is why we call this 
system the " responsible ministry " system.* 

This is one device to secure efficiency of democratic 
government which the nation and states of the United 
States have not adopted. Almost all of the states of 
Europe have copied it, modifying it to suit their purposes. 
So have most of the English colonies — among them Canada, 
South Africa and Australia. 

Why We Need to Study the Government of other Countries. 
You are probably asking, " What has all this to do with 
me? What do I care about England? I thought we were 
going to study about living together in our own country. 
I shall never need this." 

We can assure you that this is just exactly what every 
intelligent citizen of the United States does need to know. 
One reason why we do not progress more rapidly in securing 
efficient government is that most of us do not know about 
other systems and so have nothing with which to compare 
our own, and nothing except our own experience from which 
to gain ideas. A second reason for our lack of progress 
is that we often grow tired of trying to improve our system. 
A few failures discourage us. We need all the examples 
we can obtain from history to show us that the degree of 
efficiency we have reached today is the result of centuries 
of patient effort and repeated disappointment and that 
in the end perseverance in a good cause wins. 

* Cf. pages 99 and 101. 



20 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

How Ideas Have to be Spread. We have now seen how 
the English party system works. In the last chapter we 
shall look at the parties of our own country. But while 
we may find it convenient to organize into parties to secure 
what we want, we must not imagine that searching for 
people who already believe as we do is the only way to 
secure results. Many times people are hostile to ideas 
because they do not understand them; because they have 
had no opportunity to become acquainted with the facts. 
Any means which secure publicity, which carry good ideas 
to the people are not to be despised. To get these ideas 
into newspapers and magazines, to get those newspapers 
and magazines into the hands of the people; to reach 
people through all their organizations — through social clubs, 
young people's societies, and churches — these are impor- 
tant problems for all organizers of parties. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER IV 

i. What is a responsible ministry? Do we have one in the United States? 
How does the president's cabinet in the United States differ from the English 
cabinet? 

2. How does the American House of Representatives differ from the 
English House of Commons? The American Senate from the English 
House of Lords? 

3. Which would you rather be, a member of the British House of Lords 
or a member of the American Senate? Why? 

4. If you had been a member of the House of Lords, would you have voted 
for the Lloyd George Budget? 

5. Who is the prime minister of England? To what official in the United 
States does he correspond? 

6. What party is in the majority in England now? 

7. What part is in the majority in the United States? 

8. Is organization necessary in order to secure what we want? Do you 
know of any objects secured without organization? 



CHAPTER V 
FROM THE CAVE DWELLER TO MODERN BOSTON 

While we have been learning to live in larger groups; 
while we have been growing more democratic; and while 
we have been working out a machinery of government 
which makes these two developments possible, we have 
also been learning to do together, within each group, many 
things which we once did individually. Sometimes work 
is done by a few people who form a corporation for the 
purpose; sometimes a whole city, or a township, or a county, 
or a state, or even a nation undertake to do together things 
which no person or small group of persons can do alone. 

We seldom stop to reflect upon the number of things 
we have learned to do together. But if we compare the 
daily life of the cave dweller of not so very many centuries 
ago with that of his American descendant of today, the 
difference seems wonderful. The cave dweller and his 
family dwelt apart from and on the defensive against the 
encroachments of every other family. Read in class this 
story of one day of a Bostonian's daily life, and see how 
his life is interwoven with that of the community — of the 
city, the state and the nation. If any one had told the 
cave dwellers that in a few hundred or thousand years 
their descendants would be living thus, all the " Josiah 
Tuckers " in the crowd would have shouted " Never! Not 
in a million years! As long as human nature is what it 
is, it can't be done." 

21 



22 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

Yet here is the story as it was told by Eugene Wambaugh 
in the Atlantic Monthly (January, 1898), and even the 
" Josiah Tuckers " of today will admit that it is true. 

A DAY IN BOSTON 

" Our Bostonian begins the day by bathing in water 
supplied by the public through an elaborate system of 
public pumps and reservoirs and pipes. After it has been 
used, the water escapes through the citizen's own plumbing 
system; but this private plumbing system has been con- 
structed in accordance with public regulations, is liable to 
inspection by public officials, and empties into sewers con- 
structed and managed by the public. When he has dressed 
himself in clothing of which every article is probably the 
subject of a national tariff intended to affect production 
or price, our Bostonian goes to his breakfast-table, and 
finds there not only table linen, china, glass, knives, forks, 
and spoons, each of them coming under the same national 
protection, but also food, almost all of which has been 
actually or potentially inspected, or otherwise regulated, 
by the national or state or municipal government. The 
meat has been liable to inspection. The bread has been 
made by .the baker in loaves of a certain statutory weight. 
The butter, if it happens to be oleomargarine, has been 
packed and stamped as statutes require. The milk has 
been furnished by a milkman whose dairy is officially 
inspected, and whose milk must reach a certain statutory 
standard. The chocolate has been bought in cakes stamped 
in the statutory manner. The remnants of the breakfast 
will be carried away by public garbage carts; and the public 
will also care for the ashes of the coal that cooked the meal. 



FROM THE CAVE DWELLER TO MODERN BOSTON 

" Nor do this average Bostonian and his family escape 
from public control upon rising from the table. The chil- 
dren are compelled by law to go to school; and though 
there is an option to attend a private school, the city 
gratuitously furnishes a school and school-books. As for 
the father himself, when he reaches his door, he finds that 
public servants are girdling his trees with burlap, and search- 






Boston Public Library 



ing his premises for traces of the gypsy moth. Without 
stopping to reflect that he has not been asked to permit 
these public servants to go upon his property, he steps 
out upon a sidewalk constructed in accordance with public 
requirements, crosses a street paved and watered and^swept 
by the public, and enters a street car whose route, speed, 
and fare are regulated by the public. Reaching the centre 
of the city, he ascends to his office by an elevator subject 



24 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

to public inspection, and reads the mail that has been 
brought to him from all parts of the United States by public 
servants. If the dimness of his office causes him to regret 
that sunlight appears to be outside public protection, he 
may be answered that there are regulations controlling 
the height of buildings and prohibiting the malicious con- 
struction of high fences. If now he leaves his office and 
goes to some store or factory in which he owns an interest, 
he finds that for female employees chairs must be provided, 
that children must not be employed in certain kinds of 
work, that dangerous machinery must be fenced, that fire- 
escapes must be furnished, and probably that the goods 
produced or sold must be marked or packed in a prescribed 
way, or must reach a statutory standard. Indeed, what- 
ever this man's business may be, the probability is that 
in one way or another the public's hand comes between 
him and his employee, or between him and his customer. 

" Leaving his store or his factory, this average man 
deposits money in the bank, which is carefully inspected 
by public officials, and which is compelled by the public 
to refrain from specified modes of investment and also to 
publish periodical statements of its condition. He next 
makes a payment to an insurance company, which is subject 
to even stricter statutory regulations. He then goes to 
East Boston and back upon a ferry-boat owned and managed 
by the public. 

" When finally all the business of the day is finished, this 
imaginary Bostonian walks through the Common and the 
Public Garden, and soon enters the Public Library, a build- 
ing that is the latest and most striking expression of the 
public's interest in the individual. Leaving the Public 
Library, he strolls past a free bath-house sustained by the 



FROM THE CAVE DWELL I-.k TO MODERN BOSTON 25 

public, and then past a free public outdoor gymnasium; 
and at last he hastens home through streets that public 
servants are now beginning to light." 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V 

1. Which of these services are performed for the Bostonian by the city, 
which by the state of Massachusetts, and which by the United States? 

2. Which of these things in your community are done by the local authori- 
ties? Which by your state? Which by the United States? 

3. What do you owe because of these services? 



CHAPTER VI 

HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 

Some of you live in the country, some in little groups 
or villages, some in towns and some in cities. If you live 
in a city, you are subject to the laws of the city, of the state 
and of the nation. If you live in the country, you are sub- 
ject to the local regulations of the township or county, 
to the laws of the state, and to the laws of the nation. 
Wherever you live, your welfare is so bound up with the 
welfare of neighboring city and country people that you 
need to know all about the lives of both, especially about 
their organization for government. Let us observe first 
the organized life of people in the cities and later the organ- 
ized life of all the people in the state, both city and country, 
and finally the organized life of all the people in our 
nation. 

Why City and Country Must Organize. The Industrial 
Revolution has made it necessary for great numbers of us 
to live close together in cities or towns, and to depend 
upon other people in the country to provide us with raw 
materials while we supply them with manufactured articles. 
City and country are thus tied together. They can injure 
each other by exchanging products laden with disease germs; 
they can help each other by securing efficient marketing of 
products. City people have organized to protect them- 
selves against unsanitary products from the country, 

26 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 27 

country people have organized to protect themselves against 
disease from the city. 

Organization Against Destruction. City people have 
organized to protect themselves against each other also. 
Every city dweller may innocently, through ignorance and 
carelessness, do much harm to his neighbors. He may 
let his chickens scratch in his neighbor's flower bed; he may 
fail to teach his children not to cut across lawns; he may 
build unsightly and unsanitary houses; in carrying on his 
business he may fail to prevent unnecessary smoke, odors, 
and noise; by being filthy he may breed disease with which 
he infects his neighbors. These are some of the destructive 
things against which people must organize. 

Organization for t Construction. In addition, there are 
many constructive things for which people organize. We 
all want water, pavements, light, streets, shade, fire pro- 
tection, parks, schools for our children, libraries, and proper 
disposal of sewage, garbage and ashes. If each person is 
left to provide himself with all these things, some will be 
unable to do so, and the entire community may suffer. 
For example, in a certain American city, each family has 
to pay a man $3.00 a year to remove its garbage. The 
well-to-do families do it, and the poor ones do not, and for 
that lax system the whole town pays the penalty. 

The Need for Expert Knowledge. The form of organiza- 
tion best suited to carry on all these different kinds of 
business is a live question in most cities. Charles W. 
Eliot, in an address at Williams College in 1909, described 
the problem in this way: 

" The recent changes in the nature of city business go 



28 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

far to explain the failure of the American democracy to pro- 
vide capable and honest city government. The business of 
a modern city is almost all new in kind. I have personally 
seen during my lifetime the coming in of everything which 
we now regard as city business. There is hardly a single 
department of city business today which existed at all when 
I was a boy in Boston. Indeed, there is nothing now done 
by the city of Boston which was done in the same way when 
I was a boy in that old town. What cities need now is 
to apply to public work sciences of all sorts — chemistry, 
physics, medicine, bacteriology, and engineering. Fifty 
years ago there was no such need and no such knowledge. 
For example, when I was a boy in Boston, there was no 
public water-supply — none whatever — there was no sewer 
in the entire town, and no pavement except a cobble-stone 
pavement in a few streets, a rough pavement made of 
rounded beach stones. There were no lights to speak of 
in the city streets — only a few widely scattered whale oil 
lamps. There wasn't such a thing in the world as a street 
railway. No use of electricity was known — no electric 
lights, no electric transmission of power, no telephone, and 
hardly any telegraphic communication. Consider how 
absolutely different the business of a city was then from 
what it is now. Water works, gas and electric light 
works, paved streets, clean streets, sewers, garbage removal, 
preventive medicine, and schools carefully organized, well 
heated and lighted, thoroughly equipped, and inspected 
by medical officers — all these things we regard as everyday 
work for a city. None of these things existed sixty years 
ago. I have seen pigs moving freely through the streets of 
Albany, the capital of a great state, the only scavengers 
known to the city. 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 



29 




Municipal Building, New York City, with Old City Hall in Foreground 



3 o ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

" Now it is this newness of a city's business, and this 
absolute necessity for experts to superintend all this busi- 
ness — an expert for each department indeed — which makes 
so difficult the work of municipal reform." 

The Private Corporation. In your community there are 
many groups of people organized to carry on private busi- 
ness. One group buys clothing from a distance and sells 
to the neighborhood; another buys and sell groceries; 
another buys raw materials, makes it into glass bottles, 
and sells the bottles. Each group is called a corporation, 
and those who have their money in the business are called 
stockholders. The stockholders usually elect a president 
and board of trustees or directors, who manage the busi- 
ness. They determine whether or not to borrow money 
or to make additions to the plant. These directors select 
a business manager to look after the details of the business 
and make recommendations to them, in regard to carrying 
on the business. They can dismiss him if he does not 
manage to suit them; and the stockholders at the end of 
the year, usually can dismiss the directors if they desire. 

The City a Public Corporation. A city is a business cor- 
poration. But the city has more different kinds of work 
than the average corporation; in fact its business is so much 
like that of the housewife in respect to the variety and kinds 
of things it does that we have learned to speak of city 
government as housekeeping on a big scale. Cities have 
plans made for their development just as a family has a plan 
made for its home; they build streets, sweep them and 
scrub them; they lay sewers, own and operate telephones, 
water works, gas plants, electric lights and transportation 
systems, schools, hospitals and homes for dependents of 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 



Ji 



various kinds; they try to prevent disease and to furnish 
medical treatment to those not able to pay for it. They 
lend us books to read, they employ bands to play for us, 
they buy land for parks and playgrounds. They put out 
fires, they protect us from dangerous members of the com- 
munity. They punish us if we break the rules of the 




Workingmen's Homes of the New Type. 
A story-and-a-half brick house for $1500. The gardens here have just been 

planted. 

community. Some cities have buildings where groups of 
people can meet to talk or to listen to speakers; some have 
buildings called markets to which the people from the 
country can bring their goods which the market director 
sells in the town or sends to places where there is demand 
for those articles. Many European cities even go so far 
as to buy land and build houses for people to live in. Pro- 



32 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



fessor Ely tells about this in his description of Ulm on the 
Danube {Survey, December 6, 1913) : 

" As a result of its landownership the city has built 
houses for laborers and for its own employees and sold these 
houses to them outright; it has assisted building associ- 
ations by selling or leasing them land; it has also leased 
lands to individuals for agricultural purposes, especially 






MP 



mm 

SSVBStt ' 



MIL 



Ulm on the Danube — One Family Houses for Wage-earners Sold on 
Payments of Twenty-four Cents a Day, 

family gardens, and to manufacturing companies for long 
periods to encourage industrial development. Consequently 
private activity has been stimulated instead of repressed." 

The Work of German Cities. By placing restrictions on 
purchasers, Ulm attempts to prevent overcrowding. The 
city reserves the right to repurchase property whenever 
use is made of it contrary to the general aim of the city. 
" Though the city can repurchase if the purchaser fails to 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 33 

make his payments as they fall due, every possible con- 
sideration is shown the honest man who is doing his best, 
and he is helped by loans The city can repurchase, further- 
more, whenever the owner wishes to sell the house; if the 
owner rents rooms or dwellings at a higher figure than the 
maximum fixed by the Council; if without permission 
the owner places a second mortgage on the property; if the 
owner in spite of repeated demands does not occupy the 
house himself; if he shamefully neglects to keep up his 
property and it consequently falls in value; if he becomes 
bankrupt; if he takes lodgers without authorization; or if 
without authorization he allows part of his house to be used 
for industrial or commercial purposes." 

" The mayor claims that the city can build more cheaply 
than private individuals. It seems to the American almost 
incredible to see an attractive brick house a story and a 
half high, beautifully situated on high ground and learn 
that the city is able to construct and sell it for #1500." 

Business Methods of German Cities. Since cities must 
carry on more activities, it is clear that they need even 
more intelligent and skillful business management than do 
private corporations. Let us look at a typical German 
city and see how it is managed. S. S. McClure describes 
one thus: 

" Once in six years a citizen, we will say of Frankfort, 
comes to the polls and votes for a ticket, the length of which 
is one name. This name he himself may select, or a small 
group may select the name. There is no official selection 
of any name to vote for. Every man can nominate his own 
candidate. Not only that, but if there is a better man within 
fifteen miles of his ward he can pick that man and nominate 



34 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

him. They demand that freedom. They will not limit 
themselves to a citizen of the ward to be their councillor 
if the}' can find a better man in some other ward. It 
sometimes happens that no one gets a majority. Then 
within eight days the people vote again at the same place 
for one of two men who get the highest number of votes. 
Those two acts constitute the entire pre-electoral activity 
of the citizens of Frankfort. And that is a very good prac- 
tice, for I have never known a people to get good self- 
government where elections are very frequent. 

The German City Employs the Best. " This man when 
elected finds himself a councillor of the city of Frankfort 
and he finds there a mayor who is just now finishing the 
end of his second term, having been there nearly twelve 
years. The mayor came there already a distinguished 
mayor. He had performed distinguished services in another 
city as mayor and had been called to preside over the 
fortunes of Frankfort. The mayors of German cities are 
selected from among the best men that can be found. 
This councillor also found twelve other experts who had 
been chosen in the same fashion. Merely to illustrate the 
system, I will tell you of an incident that occurred some 
years ago. They were enlarging their sewer system and 
laying out their street railroad' system and they required 
a man of unusual ability. They sought all over Germany 
unsuccessfully for such a man. Finally they found the 
best man to be an Englishman and they brought him from 
England, made him a member of this board of experts, and 
he remained there until his death. " 

Organization of the American City for Business. Now let us 
see how the cities of the United States are doing their work. 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 35 

In the last twenty years we have been trying very hard to 
work out a good system of city management. Previous to 
that, our cities copied the organization of the nation. The 
city was divided into districts or wards, and each district 
elected one or more representatives to form a body to make 
the laws for the city. This body was usually called the 
city council or the Board of Aldermen and its laws were 
called ordinances. Some cities even went so far as to 
elect two sets of representatives to form two houses, just 
like the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States.* In addition to this law-making bod)', the people 
elected a mayor to enforce the laws made by the council; 
a judge to decide on cases that came up under the ordi- 
nances of the city, and minor offences under the laws of the 
state; a prosecuting attorney to bring before the judge 
persons who were accused of breaking the laws; a clerk to 
be the bookkeeper for the city; and perhaps a treasurer, 
though the city's funds are sometimes cared for by the 
county. The mayor appointed, with the consent of the 
council, a chief of police and members of the police depart- 
ment. The council or the people elected the members of 
the school board, and other boards, such as the board of 
public works and board of health. The mayor was usually 
elected for from two to four years; the members of the 
council for two years. 

The Commission Plan. In 1901 the city of Galveston, 
Texas, tried a new plan. They abolished the large city 
council elected by districts, and instead elected at large 

* There are still nine of the larger cities left in this list: Philadelphia, Kansas 
City, Baltimore, Providence, Louisville, Atlanta, Worcester, Richmond, and 
Cambridge. 



36 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

five commissioners, who were not only to make the regu- 
lations, but also to carry them out as the mayor of other 
cities was doing. They divided the work into five depart- 
ments, each one taking charge of a department. 

The Referendum. Soon other cities adopted the plan. 
They made changes in it. The city of Houston put a check 
upon the power of the commission by providing that when 
it gave permits or franchises, as they are called, to cor- 
porations to supply the people of the city with certain 
articles or services, such as water, telephones, and street 
transportation, such franchises should be submitted to the 
people in order that they might say whether or not they 
would accept its conditions. This provision for reference 
to the people is known as the referendum. 

The Initiative. Then the legislature of Iowa passed a 
law giving cities the right to adopt the commission form of 
government with these modifications. The people were to 
have the right to have referred to them not only franchises 
but also city ordinances. If they wanted ordinances which 
the commission would not pass, they could draw up petitions 
asking to have those measures referred to them. This is 
called the initiative, or the right to begin or suggest laws. 

The Recall. If the- policy of any officeholder did not 
please the citizens, on petition of twenty-five voters, an 
election could be held to see if they would dismiss him. 
This is the recall. 

The City Manager. Still another step has been taken 
in the development of city government. In a number of 
commission-governed cities, the commission is selecting a 
business manager, or city manager. The city of Dayton 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 37 

makes him responsible for the enforcement of all city ordi- 
nances. He must attend the meeting of the commission 
and discuss and recommend measures; must report to them 
on the finances and needs of all the different departments 
of city government; and he may investigate the working 
of any department of the city's business. In order that 
he may be held responsible for all these things, he is given 
the power to appoint the city attorney, the directors of 
public service, public welfare, public safety, and finance; 
the health officer, the chief of police, fire chief, city account- 
ant, city treasurer, and city purchasing agent. 

This city manager plan is nearer the German plan than 
anything we have yet had in this country. The city council 
of the German city elects a mayor who is really a business 
manager, giving all his time to the needs of the city. If 
he serves a small city well, some larger city is pretty sure 
to hear of him and ask him to take charge of their city. 
So he goes on to larger and larger cities if he gives good 
service. For the business of managing cities is a real 
business which it takes a lifetime to learn. Our city 
government will be efficient when men are chosen, not 
because they belong to the Democratic or Republican 
party, but because they understand their business and are 
willing to give their best service. 

Keeping in mind the way the business of a city is 
managed, notice now the way the business of running a 
battleship is managed. 

Building a Battleship. The United States decides 
through the political party which is in pow T er in Congress, 
to build itself a new battleship. Congress does not, as a 
body, superintend the building of the ship. It leaves that 



38 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

to the administrative department which has charge of the 
navy. It is content to determine the policy and leave the 
details to experts. Everything about the battleship is new 
and shining; it will be easy to keep in order. But it must 
be kept in perfect order — always ready for the emergency 
which may or may not come. The selection of the captain 
of the ship is therefore a very important matter. 

The Ship is Finished. The captain will be in the employ 
of the people of the United States. Should the people, 
therefore, select, or as we call it, elect him? No, everybody 
would consider that absurd. How could the people of the 
United States as a whole give their time to searching for a 
suitable employee? Instead, they deputize the President 
whom they have elected to look after that part of the busi- 
ness of the country to select the commander of the vessel. 

Training the Commander of the Battleship. Where will 
the President find a suitable man? Will he appoint some 
one because he is a Democrat or a Republican, or because 
he is a prominent attorney who worked for the President's 
election, or because he is a "good fellow/' or because he 
needs the money? No, indeed. He will select one from the 
group of men whom the nation has been training for years 
for this very work, first in school at Annapolis, and later 
working under other commanders subject to the strictest 
discipline. For the United States recognizes that the 
management of a battleship requires expert service; that it 
needs a man trained to do this as a life profession. 

We realize the importance of expert management of the 
army and navy. There are signs that we are beginning to 
demand expert management of a business much more com- 
plicated and much more vital to our welfare than the 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 39 

business of running a battleship. Our city, our state, our 
nation are great business concerns. Perhaps sometime 
we shall use all our intelligence in deciding what enter- 
prises these concerns shall undertake, and then engage to 
carry out our wishes experts who have been trained to 
serve us. As the demand for these experts increases, our 
colleges and universities are beginning to offer training for 
public service. Students of our universities are being put 
to work* with city and state officials and are receiving uni- 
versity credit for this apprentice work. At the same time, 
cities and states are putting more of their employees on a 
permanent basis. Those employees who have little to do 
with determining what shall be done, but whose business 
it is to use all their ability in doing the thing which 
the community orders, are being put under a civil 
service system which employs them through a competitive 
examination. 

Training the Managers of Our Public Business. The move- 
ment for a short ballot, which would make necessary the 
permanent filling by appointment of many offices now elect- 
ive, would make possible the selection and retention of 
experts. Governor Capper of Kansas, in the 1914 cam- 
paign said: " There is no more excuse for a partisan admin- 
istration of a reformatory, an educational or charitable 
institution than for the political administration of a hos- 
pital, a school or a bank. When I advertise for a printer 
to work on my newspaper, I don't say: * Wanted: A printer 
who can carry the third ward.' I say: * Wanted: A 
printer who can print ' and I pick out the best printer who 
applies for the job." 

Government work is coming to be looked upon as busi- 



4 o FXEMENTARY CIVICS 

ness which vitally affects us all, and not as a good thing to 
be handed around as a reward for political service. It 
looks as if the time is coming when a person may prepare 
himself as carefully to serve the public interests as he now 
prepares himself to serve private interests; and as if he may 
sometime be as secure in his position when he is engaged 
in serving the public efficiently as he is now when he is 
engaged in serving private employers efficiently. 



QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VI 

i. What is the form of government in your village, town, or city, or the 
city nearest your home? 

2. What is the lawmaking body called? How many members has it? 
Does each one represent one section of the town or does he represent the 
whole town? Do these men represent the different ideas of different classes 
of people, — that is, of manual laborers, manufacturers, merchants, teachers, 
lawyers, etc., or do they represent the ideas of only one or two of these 
classes? 

3. Whosa duty is it to see that the city ordinances are enforced? Who 
holds that office in your city? 

4. What body administers justice? What kinds of cases come before 
this body? 

5. Make a list of the elected officials in your city and of the duties of each 
one. Let each member of the class find out the duties of some one of these. 
Discuss each office as to the following points: 

(a) Does the official have to determine policies, or does he simply 

carry out policies? 

(b) What training is needed for the office? 

(c) Could the work be done better by a permanent official? 

(d) Could the official be appointed? Who would appoint him? 

(e) What are the advantages to the people of having to vote for only 

a few officers? The disadvantages? 

6. Which of the following departments of business does your city have: 
health,* education, fire, police, public safety, finance, civil service, parks,* 
libraries? Are there any others? How is each of these departments com- 

* Discussions of health and park departments are* given in Chapters VIII 
and IX. 



HOW THE CITY DOES ITS WORK 41 

posed? By whom are the members of each department selected? Who are 
the members at present in your city? What are the duties of each depart- 
ment? Do any of these departments act together? To whom are they respon- 
sible for their actions? How may you cooperate with these departments? 
(See Appendix, p. 218.) 

7. What knowledge must a fireman have of his own city? Why? Make 
a list of the causes of fires. f Appendix, p". 213-216, will giva some help on 
this paragraph.) What ordinances are there in regard to fires? Observe 
public buildings, tenements, elevators, stairways, and note if these ordinances 
are observed. Explain, — " Fire prevention and civic cleanliness are possible 
of attainment at the same time." What influence may fire insurance com- 
panies exert in a city for better fire protection? What other duties has the 
fire department besides putting out fires? What are some of the local regu- 
lations designed to prevent fires? 

8. Let each member of the class talk with some member of the police 
department as to the duties of the latter, and report in class. What con- 
ditions make a large police force necessary? How can these conditions be 
remedied? 

9. If your city has a civil service commission what employees come under 
it? Look up in your histories the " Spoils System." Consult the index 
and read the advance made in civil service. 

10. Besides these departments supported by the city, what other organi- 
zations are at work for the improvement of your city? 

11. Some of our great cities contain more inhabitants than entire states. 
The city of Chicago with its more than two million inhabitants of every 
nationality, scarcely less than the entire population of the great state of 
California, has problems of government to solve which are as difficult as those 
of any state. A study of the chart of Organization of the Government of the 
City of Chicago (see Appendix, p. 175) will show something of its compli- 
cations and expense. But a resident of the city of Chicago is not merely a 
citizen of the city; he is also a citizen of Cook County, and has duties with 
respect to its government; he is a citizen of a certain park district, and has 
duties connected with it. These duties are chiefly the selection of officials 
and the payment of taxes. 

The Chicago Bureau of Public Efficiency has prepared a pamphlet on 
" The Nineteen Local Governments in Chicago." It is from this pamphlet 
that the Chicago charts in the appendix are taken. The chart (Appendix, 
p. 176) entitled " Why the Chicago Voter is Dazed " is an interesting long 
ballot document. The table (Appendix, p. 177) shows the same thing in a 
different way, and the table (Appendix, p. 179) shows the situation as 
regards women voters. Study these tables, keeping in mind the following 
questions : 



42 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

(a) How can the Chicago voter get his information regarding the 

qualification of candidates for office? 

(b) How does the government of Chicago compare with the govern- 

ment of your own city with regard to (a') Number and character 
of elective offices; (b') Number and character of appointive 
offices; (c ; ) Salaries. 

(c) What suggestions can you make for the simplifying of the 

problem of the Chicago voter? 

12. What forces in your community tend to the increase of poverty? 
What forces tend to the prevention of the increase of poverty? What 
provision does the city make for the care of the poor? What organiza- 
tions have private citizens formed for that purpose? Does the city help to 
support any of these organizations? Why do we have charity bureaus? 

13. How much did your city spend upon charity last year?* 

14. If a worthy person asks you for charity, what should you do? What 
is indiscriminate charity? How may this kind of giving injure the individ- 
ual, the community? 

15. What provisions are made for the care of the sick, the aged, and 
orphan children in your city? 

(a) By the city? (b) By private agencies? 

16. Would you rather live in the Boston described in the previous chapter 
or in the Boston described by Ex-President Eliot? 

17. Would you like to be business manager of your city? 

18. Would being a good lawyer qualify one for that position? A good 
physician? A good real-estate agent? A good iron-moulder? A good 
merchant? 

19. What kind of training would you suggest for a person who intends 
to manage the business of a city? 

20. Should the business manager be an inhabitant of the town which he 
is to serve? 

ax. Take a vote in class on the person in your community best suited to 
hold that office. 

22. In what way can you apply this quotation: " So use your own prop- 
erty that you will not injure another in the use of his property "? 

* See Appendix, p. 180 and note proportion of New York City budget assigned 
to Charitable Purposes. 



CHAPTER VII 
HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS 

The longer you wait to pay your butcher's bill, the 
more it hurts you to pay it. It is not nearly as bad if you 
put a quarter into the butcher's hand as he puts a little 
package of meat into yours. But when you have eaten 
the meat and forgotten it, the bill seems very large and the 
benefits received very small. 

It is always that way with the bills we owe the com- 
munity for the services it gives us. Indeed those bill are 
the most painful of all to pay. We only pay them once or 
twice a year — at the county court house or the city hall. 
We say we are going to pay our taxes, and we sometimes 
talk as if we are giving a present to the community, for- 
getting that we are really buying services; health, police 
and fire protection, education, parks, playgrounds, removal 
of sewage, garbage and ashes, and many other things. 

What Shall We Pay for Public Service. How to deter- 
mine the amount which each of us shall give for those 
services is a difficult matter. Should we pay according to 
the services we receive, or according to our ability to pa}*? 
Does the rich man or the poor man, the property owner or 
the person without property receive the most benefit from 
public schools, libraries, parks, playgrounds, police and fire 
protection, collection of sewage, garbage and ashes: 

Some cities say " Let every one pay according to the 
amount of property of all kinds which he owns in the city, 

43 



44 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

real estate, that is, houses and lands; and personal property; 
money, furniture, stocks and bonds, notes, automobiles, 
motorcycles, and other movables." These cities send asses- 
sors from house to house to determine the amount of 
property of each resident. When they report, the total 
amount of wealth in the city is calculated. Each depart- 
ment reports how much it needs for the next year and the 
total of their needs is calculated. Then the city council, 
board of estimate and apportionment or commission deter- 
mines what per cent of the wealth of the city must be taken 
in order to meet the expenses. We call that fixing the 
rate of taxation. 

Kinds of Taxes. In some cities, especially in some of 
the western states of Canada, the city taxes each person 
only in proportion to the land he owns in the city — every 
other form of wealth is exempt.* This is known as the 
Single Tax. Many cities derive much of their income from 
licenses on certain kinds of business, such as peddling and 
the selling of liquor. Sometimes individuals or local- 
ities are compelled to pay for improvements which are 
supposed to be of special benefit to them, such as parks 

* In the province of Alberta, two of the six cities, Edmonton and Medicine 
Hat, collect taxes on land values only. The Village and Town Acts of 191 2, 
respectively, require all villages and towns to raise in that way the necessary funds. 
In the province of Saskatchewan, the Assessment Act of 191 1 forbids cities and 
towns to assess buildings at more than 60 per cent of their value and land at less 
than its full value. Any city or town may reduce the assessment on improve- 
ments 15 per cent each year until investments are totally exempt. In 1914 
Regina, the capital, had reached the point where buildings were assessed at only 
15 per cent of their value. In British Columbia the cities of Vancouver, Victoria 
and New Westminster have exempted improvements. Although this provision 
does not apply to cities and towns, it is interesting to note, in this connection, 
that in the rural communities of Manitoba, agricultural improvements are exempt. 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS HILLS 45 

and boulevards in the neighborhood and the paving in front 
of their houses. This is called special assessment. 

Cities as Borrowers. Cities, like individuals, pay cash for 
some things and go into debt for others. Expenses which 
have to be met anew every year are paid by the taxes from 
year to year. For permanent improvements, the benefits of 
which are spread over a long period of time, the city usually 
goes into debt. It borrows money, generally from its own cit- 
izens, and gives the lenders its notes, called bonds, payable at 
a certain date with interest. Most states have a debt limit 
beyond which cities cannot borrow. This debt limit some- 
times prevents cities from buying or establishing their own 
water works, electric light, gas or other public utility system. 

Ciaes as Land-owners and Speculators. German towns have 
what may seem to you at first a very strange scheme for pay- 
ing their expenses: they make much money by buying and 
selling real estate. Mr. William II. Dawson tells about 
these " Land policies^ of German towns " in this way: 

" The extent of land owned by Cerman towns will 
probably surprise those who are unacquainted with the large 
view of municipal enterprise held in Germany. There, 
large towns are as ready to spend a quarter of a million 
pounds in buying land as the average English town of the 
same size is to spend ten pounds upon a watering-cart. . . . 
During the period 1880 to 1908 Breslau expended over a 
million and a half pounds in the purchase of land within the 
communal area, of which sum £1,199,000 was expended on 
land needed for public purposes and £350,000 on land 
intended for resale. In addition, land was purchased to 
the value of £308,000 outside the municipal area, £139,000 
being expended in purchases in the immediate neighbor- 



46 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

hood of the town. At the present time Breslau owns about 
one-quarter of the entire municipal area and six times as 
much outside that area. . . ." 

" As a rule it will be found that where forest and wood- 
land surround a town the municipal authority has taken 
care to secure as much as possible for the use of the inhab- 
itants. . . . Many of the small communes of Baden derive 
much of their revenue from forests; in some cases the pro- 
ceeds amount to 30 s., and even 40 s., per head of the pop- 
ulation. The inhabitants of two little towns, Wellend- 
ingen and Oberinnden, are exempt from taxation owing to 
the yield of the public forests, and the Oberinnden folk 
are supplied with fuel free of charge. The village of Langen- 
bach, with 780 inhabitants, owns land and forest yielding 
in limestone and timber £2500 per annum, an amount 
which covers all local expenditure and the cost of water, 
and leaves a balance to be added to the credit of the com- 
mune yearly." 

Greater profits are made, however, in the buying and 
selling of land. "In the administrative year 1911-12 
Diisseldorf made a profit of £21,400 on the turnover of its 
municipal land fund. Magdeburg bought land on the south 
side of the town at 10 s. 9 d. a square metre, to a total value 
of £300,000, and succeeded in selling two-thirds of it at £4 
a square metre, for £1,300,000, while it bought land on the 
north side of the town at 23 s. a square metre, to a total 
value of £30,000, and succeeded in selling two-thirds of it 
at £4 a square metre, for £1,300,000, while it bought land 
on the north side of the town for 23 s. a square metre and 
sold it for 43s." 

Taxes Sometimes a Poor Investment. Our reluctance to 
pay taxes is often justifiable. Many of us who are willing to 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS 47 

pay for the things we receive object to paying for things we do 
not receive. We object also to paying more for the things 
which we buy as a city than we have to pay for them as indi- 
viduals. The fear which many people feel of having the city, 
the state, and the nation go into business, such as the manage- 
ment of the street railway system and the water works, is 
based on their experience of mismanagement in their own and 
other communities. " Since the city," they say, " shows itself 
so extravagant and incompetent in handling such matters as it 
now has in its charge, would it not be folly to intrust it with 
more?" Certainly we all agree that if the city is to take up 
various kinds of business, it must prove that it can manage 
them as well, even better, than individuals have in the past. 

Increasing Efficiency in Public Business. There are indi- 
cations that cities are learning the lessons of economy and 
efficiency. We have seen how they are doing away with 
the old complicated machinery of government, and sub- 
stituting the simpler forms — the commission and business 
manager plan. We have seen how they are learning to 
fill positions by competitive examination, and to retain the 
" civil servants " whom they obtain this way, even after 
a change of administration. In addition to these changes 
they are adopting businesslike methods of planning ahead 
for the city's needs, and of keeping accounts. 

The Budget. The plan for spending next year's taxes, 
which the business manager, or the commissioner, or the 
comptroller makes out, is called the budget.* Each depart- 
ment, such as the department of public safety, department 
of health and department of education, is asked to make an 
estimate of the amount of money required to do its work 
next year. Formerly those estimates were very general; 

* See Appendix, p. 180 for the budget of New York City. 



48 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

but the new zeal for efficiency and economy requires that 
they shall be very carefully itemized, and that the depart- 
ments shall not be permitted to waver far from these items. 
In addition to that, the attention of the public is being 
invited, so that the citizens, after careful scrutiny of the 
items, may intelligently advise their representatives who 
vote on the appropriations. 

Some of us, in home as well as municipal matters, 
are too lazy to take much interest in our accounts. We 
did not keep any last year so we do not know where we 
should have to cut down expenses in order to keep within 
our income. It is irksome to determine now just how much 
we may spend on different items in order not to exceed 
our earnings for the next year. So we borrow money as 
long as we can. So have cities. But there comes a time 
when neither of us can borrow more, and we have to stop 
and study the situation. . 

When cities have reached their debt limit, they have 
to raise by taxation the money they need. It is very diffi- 
cult for the office holders to raise the tax levy without 
being put out of office at the next election by the angry 
voters. The new business method of managing a city 
recognizes this, and seeks to make the voter a partner in 
the levy of the tax by securing his interest and sympathy 
in the objects for which it is spent. 

How Cities Publish Their Accounts. Just how to make the 
people acquainted with the way their money has been spent, 
and how to help them to decide whether or not they wish 
a certain department to spend money for a certain purpose, 
is a difficult problem. Several cities have solved the 
problem by having budget exhibits. These exhibits are 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS 49 

usually held in a public and accessible place. They aim to 
show the work of each department of government, its 
expenses in the past, and the kind of work which it hopes 
to do next year if the public gives it financial support. 

New York City's first exhibit was held from October 
3 to October 28, 1910. A great sign stretched across the 
front of the building in which it was held bore the invi- 
tation: "The City invites you to see how your money is 



A YARD OF LEMONS 



TOTit 



COST TO CITY SWOO S 1040 \ 300 5 2 10 $160 S 800 S 300 $160 S 1 50 $300 $450 $4875 
WE PAID $520 S 5*20 S 180 S 70 S072 5 400 S 1 80 $092 $102 $045 $228 $2409 

WE BOUGHT AT THE SAME PLACE 
THE CITY DID AND PAID HALF AS MUCH 



The Officer Who Buys " Lemons " is Apt to Argue Well for Budget 

Increase. 

New York Budget Exhibit. 

spent/' The same invitation was sent to every taxpayer, 
was posted on the Brooklyn bridge, and was published in 
the newspapers. 

The people came in crowds. The first exhibit they saw 
was that of the department of weights and measures, which 
proved its value to the public by a great pile of confiscated 
light weights, short measures, measures with false bottoms, 
cans with double sides and false scales. The Tenement 
House department displayed models of the old-law and the 



5° 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 




PQ 
"43 



u 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS 



5* 



new-law fire escapes. Traveling libraries made up sample 
packages. The purchasing department discussed their 




Is Inspection Necessary? 

Cincinnati Budget Exhibit. 



methods of buying, the cost and the required standard for 
coal, oats and other supplies bought. The Water Depart- 



Si 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



ment presented a leaky faucet which would waste #6.00 a 
year for the person who paid the water rent. 

At the Cincinnati Exhibit in 1912 a fireman gave instruc- 
tions on turning in an alarm. It was explained why the 
city purchasing agent buys all the coal for the city by the 




Street Cleaning Department. 

Cincinnati Budget Exhibit. 



number of heat units rather than by the ton; how he tests 
samples of coal; how he saves money by making the soap 
and paint used by the city; how the street and sewer depart- 
ment makes a good pavement by grouting old brick and 
stone block; and what dairy inspection is doing for the 
milk supply. 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS S3 

Such things as these and many more are brought before 
the public in different city exhibits. Charts comparing 
expenditures of different years, and plans for suggested 
improvements are made as clear as possible to the people 
who have to decide whether or not they want these improve- 
ments. 

This system of taking the public into one's confidence 
is not a new one. Long ago in Florence the members of 
the guild wished to give the city a memorial in the form of 
bronze doors for the Baptistery of the Cathedral. They 
advertised a contest to secure the best talent to design the 
panels. The sculptor who presented the best sample panel 
was to be given the contract. 

The contest narrowed to two famous sculptors, Bru- 
nelleschi and Lorenzo Ghiberti. Brunellischi shut himself 
into his room and worked away at his panel in secrecy. 
Ghiberti, on the contrary, invited in his friends and worked 
with his door open to all. Interested visitors dropped in 
to watch him work. They criticised freely and Ghiberti 
welcomed their criticisms. 

The two panels were finished and presented for judg- 
ment. Brunelleschi's panel was surprisingly beautiful. But 
when he saw Ghiberti's he retired from the contest. It 
was, indeed, a marvel. Each human figure in the beautiful 
scene was so lifelike that every one who looked upon it was 
satisfied. Each one felt that it was as he himself would 
have liked to produce it. Ghiberti had invited the criticisms 
of the public, and the public accepted the work which they 
had helped to produce. The combined wisdom and taste 
of the populace was superior to that of one man. 

Could our public accounting be as open as Ghiberti's 
carving? Would public opinion on the wisdom of their 



54 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

actions be as valuable to the men who manage our public 
business as it was to the man who gave the world the famous 
bronze doors? 

The public health department, police and fire depart- 
ments cannot sit with their accounts open in a little room 



FOR 36 CENTS 
PER CAPITA PER YEAR 

YOUR 

CHILD HAS THE 

OPPORTUNITY 



O 



«y^ 



OF OBTAINING A 

COLLEGE EDUCATION 

DOES THE 
UNIVERSITY OF CINCINNATI 
PAY ? 



! 



Cincinnati Budget Exhibit. 

by the side of the road. But they can publish in the news- 
papers their plan for expenditures in the succeeding year, as 
the New York Bureau of Municipal Research suggests. They 
can arrange for public meetings with the taxpayers to talk 
over their plans, just as the English cabinet members talk 
over their plans with the English Parliament. They can 
help to form in the people the habit of studying public 



HOW THE CITY PAYS ITS BILLS 55 

expenses and public economies, so that the people can 
give credit where it is due and inform themselves as to what 
they are receiving for their taxes. They can encourage 
the giving of helpful suggestions in place of destructive 
criticisms. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER VH 

i. On what basis are the expenses of your community divided among 
the citizens? 

2. What was the rate of taxation last year? 

3. Should the city go into debt to pay for the salaries of its officials? For 
keeping up its parks? For building a city hall? For buying a waterworks 
system? 

4. Is there any difference between the desirability of going into debt 
to buy a park and the desirability of going into debt to buy the street rail- 
way system? 

5. Debate the question, "Resolved, that the city should pay for its school- 
houses as it builds them." 

6. What is the debt of your city? The debt limit? 

7. For what purpose has your community borrowed money during the 
last two years? How much interest does it pay? 

8. Should the city help pay for the improvement of the country roads 
leading to it? 

9. Do you know of any American city which pays all its expenses out of 
business which it carries on without taxing the people? 

10. Has your city the power to purchase more land than it needs for a 
particular purpose in order to profit by the increase in land values? 

11. Study the budget of the city of New York for 1915. (See Appendix 
p. 180). Name the different departments in the order of their expense, 
noticing the total and per capita cost of each. 

12. What were the total expenses of your city (or town or township or 
county) last year? What was the expense of each department? The per 
capita cost? Do you think the service you received from each was worth 
the cost? 

13. Why are playgrounds for children economical investments for a 
city? 

14. Find out how much your own family paid last year for the services 
of the community. Calculate for yourself what per cent of that was used 
by each department. Do you think you received your money's worth? 



56 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

15. Do you keep an account of your own expenses? Does your family 
keep account of its expenses? 

16. What per cent of the family expense is rent? Food? Clothing? 
Amusement? Other things? 

17. Among what items are your own expenses divided? 

18. Make a budget exhibit showing the expense of running your own 
schoolroom and the benefits derived from it. Calculate the cost of instruc- 
tion (you can probably get an average of the cost per pupil from the super- 
intendent's office and multiply that by the number of pupils) the cost of 
janitor service, heat, light, books, rental value of the room and every item 
you can think of; make diagrams, charts, collections of articles, etc., to show 
that cost. Think out and carry out methods of showing the public how they 
are getting the full value of their money. Invite your parents and friends 
in to see the exhibit. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE CITY'S HEALTH 

" It is within the power of man to drive all infectious and contagious diseases 
om the earth." 

That is what the great French physician, Louis Pasteur, 
said. What he did was as much to the point as what he 
said, for he spent his life fighting disease. As our popu- 
lation increases, and we are crowded closer and closer, we 
find that if we are to live at all, we must fight constantly 
against disease. 

Why Be Particular? Fighting disease is really fighting 
dirt — dirt in the air, in the food, in the water, and on the 
things we touch. We have to be more and more careful 
in order to secure fresh air, clean food, pure water, quick 
and safe removal of garbage and sewage and to prevent 
the transmission of disease in all our communications with 
our fellow citizens. Sometimes people laugh at us for 
such care, and say " What's the use in being too particular? 
Our grandfathers and great-grandfathers slept in closed 
rooms and ate anything they liked. They didn't have 
their meat and milk inspected. They didn't have screens 
to keep out the flies and mosquitoes. They weren't talking 
all the time about sanitation. And they lived just as long 
as we do." 

When people say that, they do not take into consider- 
ation certain things. Our grandfathers and great-grand- 

57 



58 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



fathers slept in log houses in which ventilation was secured 
through the cracks in the walls and the open fireplace. 
Ninety per cent of them spent the day in active work in 
the open air; over fifty per cent of us spend the day in 
stuffy factories and offices. They produced their own food 




Would You Prefer to Buy Milk from This Farm? 



and made their own clothing while we buy most of our 
food and ready-made clothing; and they rode in their own 
wagons while we are crowded together on street-cars and 
jn railway coaches. 

We have been forced to learn that our own health is 
not a private matter, that the public has a right to know 



THE CITY'S HEALTH 59 

if we have a communicable disease, to protect itself against 
getting that disease, and even to cure us so that we may 
not be a menace to the community. Cities have pro- 
vided free hospitals, sanitariums and dispensaries for 
people who want to be cured. The city of New York, 
where the need is greatest, has gone a step farther, and 




Or from This? 

sends out detectives to find disease just as it sends out 
detectives to find crime and poverty. Treatment is pro- 
vided for those who cannot afford to pay for treatment 
and who would not go to physicians and hospitals to ask it. 
New York has adopted the motto that " public health is 
purchasable " and that " within natural limitations a com- 
munity can determine its own death rate." 



6o 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



The best way to see what is being done by cities to 
improve public health is to study some of the ordinances 
which have been passed to combat disease. A number of 
these have been placed in the Appendix, pp. 1 81-195, to be 




Interior of a Barn on a Farm which Supplies Certified Milk to 
Minneapolis and St, Paul. 

studied in connection with the following questions and 
suggestions: 



1. What did Louis Pasteur do for the world? Robert Koch? 

2. In what way does a reputation for good health benefit a community? 
How does a reputation for having typhoid or yellow fever affect the pros- 
perity of a community? 



THE CITY'S HEALTH 



61 




62 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

3. Without the aid of the community, what can you do to protect your 
own health? 

4. What means are taken in your home to prevent illness or accident? 

5. Imagine yourself a physician giving yourself an examination on the 
care of your own health. Grade yourself on the following points: 

(a) Over-eating and eating of unwholesome foods. 

(b) Rapid eating. 



Why All This Fuss About Milk? 

"Who ever heard of a Milk Show? AH milk looks alike to me." 

Yes, milk generally LOOKS clean because it's white. 

If it were not white you could often SEE dirt in it. 
"What harm will a little dirt do, anyway?" 

Dirt in milk is dangerous. It often causes sickness and death. 
"How can we be sure that our milk is dean when we buy it? " 

One way is to try it on a baby; if the baby dies, the milk is bad. 

A better way is to make sure that the Health Department does not allow your 
milkman to sell bad milk. 
"Then it's ALL up to the Health Department, is it?" 

Not on your life; after you get the milk, it's up to you. 

Many a perfectly good baby is killed by milk because mothers and sen/ants are 
careless or don't know enough. 

It's easy to keep milk CLEAN and COLD and SAFE if you know how. 

Come to the Milk Show and learn how. 

See the difference between good and bad milk. 

See how the Health Department guards your health and life every day. 

The Health Department will do more when everybody says it must. 

BRING YOUR FRIENDS OR GET THEM TO BRING YOU. 



Card distributed to all school children in the seventh grade 
and above to advertise the Philadelphia Milk Show. 



(c) Use of articles, such as alcohol and tobacco, which have no food 

value but which deplete strength. 

(d) Too little sleep. 

(e) Incorrect posture. 

(f ) Lack of exercise. 

(g) Eye strain. 

(h) Bad air — frequent attendance at shows, moving pictures and 

sleeping room windows closed. 
(i) Failure to take daily bath, 
(j) Neglect of teeth. 



THE CITY'S HEALTH 



63 



6. Where are there greater dangers to health — in the city or in the 
country? What dangers to health are there in the city which do not exist 
in the country? What dangers in the country which do not exist in the 
city? 

7. What things are done to make your school-room sanitary? 

8. What can a city do to secure clean, fresh air for its inhabitants? 
Pure water? Clean food? 

9. Who removes the garbage in your city? Who pays for its removal? 
Should you keep it in a closed or open receptacle? How can you keep it 
clean? Where should you keep it? Are there alleys in your town? 




A Hot-bed for Typhoid. 

Many of these shacks in a town of the middle west are owned by residents 
of a city across the river. $100 invested thus is bringing one man enough income 
to pay the rent of the pleasant house in which he lives in the neighboring city. 
Every year the floods drive these people out, and every year they return after the 
floods to their water-soaked houses. 



10. If your neighbor is careless in regard to his garbage can, should you 
report him? Why? 

11. How can you best make sure of a pure water supply — by having your 
own well or by having a common water supply for the whole community? 

12. Do medical inspectors look after the health of children in your school? 
Name all the cases in which you have come in contact with the board of 
health. What do you think of a citizen who breaks quarantine? 



64 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



13. Study the sanitary conditions of the grocery, meat market, and 
bakeries which you patronize. Make a list of regulations which you would 
make if you were a member of the city council or the board of health, in 
regard to such things as the conditions of floors, presence of dogs, cats, 
spitting, handling of foods, flies, exposure of foods, etc. 




Another Hot-bed for Disease. 
A residence for three families — one upstairs, one downstairs and one in the 

lean-to addition. 



14. Read carefully in class the milk ordinances (see Appendix, p. 181) 
of the town of Elyria, Ohio, section by section and discuss each section as to 

(a) Its necessity and wisdom. 

(b) Any improvements which you can suggest. 

(c) Corresponding ordinances under which you buy milk, if you live 

in the city or under which you sell it if you live in the country. 

15. Study the scheme for grading dairies and grade according to this 
scheme one dairy or farm to which you have access. 



THE CITY'S HEALTH 65 

16. State your views on this question. Should the owner of the cows pay 
for their inspection for tuberculosis? If not, who should? Should a local 
veterinarian be employed to make the inspection? Why? 

17. What is the special excellence of the milk ordinance of Saginaw, 
Michigan? (See Appendix, p. 195.) 

18. What is the duty of the city council of Roanoke, Virginia, with re- 
gard to the public health? Of the board of health? ,Of the health officer? 
(See Appendix, p. 190.) 

19. Compare the provisions for protecting the public health in Roanoke 
with the provisions in your own community. 

20. How do the ordinances in Seattle with regard to street-cars compare 
with those of your own city? (See Appendix, p. 192. ) 

21. Do you see the necessity for strict rules in regard to quarantine such 
as those of Fargo, North Dakota? (See Appendix, p. 193.) 

22. Should you want rules as strict as those of Elyria, Ohio, applied to 
the bakery from which you buy your bread? Are they? 

23. Is the meat which you eat inspected for disease? If so, by whom? 
Is it clean? Have you ordinances like those of Saginaw, Michigan. 

24. What improvement does the Saginaw milk ordinance make upon the 
Elyria ordinance? 

25. Read the Indiana housing act in class and discuss as to the following 
points. (See Appendix, p. 196.) 

(a) Do you know of any tenement houses, i.e., houses in which two 

or more families are living, which would not meet the require- 
ments of this act? 

(b) Would you make any change in any section? 

26. " Plain living and simple food will prevent many ailments." Give 
illustrations to prove. 

27. Dr. Hurty of Indiana says: M Elements which make healthful homes 
are pure air, pure water, simple food, sunshine, cleanliness, pleasant sur- 
roundings and cheerful occupation." What do you think? 

28. Are you sensitive to impure air? Give proof. 

29. How does the adulteration of food affect the public health and how 
is the practice to be detected and punished? 

30. What can be done so that ice and milk can be supplied at a reason- 
able rate to the poor of a city? 

31. In the discharge of their duties Boards of Health often interfere with 
individual rights. What justifies this interference? 

32. What occupations in your city are regulated by law for the sake of 
public health and safety? 

33. What do you think of the Student's Health Creed? (See Appendix, 
p. 212.) Are you following all of its suggestions? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 

" Why don't they keep the streets a little cleaner? " 

You ask with deep annoyance, not undue; 
" Why don't they keep the parks a little greener? " 

Did you ever stop to think that They means You? 

The American City Street. A shopkeeper in a certain 
American city came out of his shop door, looked up and 
down the street to see if a policeman were near; satisfied 
himself that the police were out of sight, and dumped a 
pile of rubbish into the gutter. 

No policeman saw him, but a German did. 

" Now I see," said the German, " why your cities are 
not kept clean. In America you put your refuse *into the 
waste boxes because some one may be watching you, and 
in Germany we put it into the receptacles because we wish 
to keep our cities clean. " 

If you stop to think about it, you are almost com- 
pelled to admit that the German is right. Did you ever 
look up and down a street in your town and wonder how 
it would appear to a stranger? Here is a business street, 
for example. Every building in the block is of a different 
height. A little one-story wooden structure stands next 
to a ten-story brick and steel office building. Signs of 
every size and description cover the fronts of the buildings; 

Note. — The illustrations in this chapter are prezented through the courtesy 
of Mr. Charles Mulford Robinson, Secretary, Rochester Civic Improvement 
Committee. 

66 



THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 



67 



bill boards stand on the sidewalks in front of the theatres; 
barber poles twist perpetually in glass cases; electric signs 
flash in and out like great eyes winking at you. Telephone 




Does This Street Look Familiar? Could You Improve It? 



and trolley wires make a network overhead, and part of 
the street pavement is being removed to put in a gas pipe. 
Dust is flying around in the air with scraps of paper torn 



68 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



up by thoughtless pedestrians. Banana peelings and apple 
cores lie in the gutter, and you gather up on your shoes 
to carry home and deposit on your carpet the germs which 
have been expectorated upon the sidewalk. 

The American City Lacks a Plan. The city street is an 
excellent indication of the people of the town. From the 




Railroad Bridge in New York City 



scraps of paper and the dirt you can judge their civic pride 
and their ideas of sanitation; from the torn-up streets you 
can determine to what extent they foresaw and planned 
to meet the needs of a growing city. 

The German City Plans Carefully. The German city not 
only shows by its cleanliness the civic patriotism of its 
citizens, but many of them also show, by being prepared to 
meet new needs, that they are the result of carefully thought 



THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 



69 



out plans. Having seen how our cities look to a German, 
it may be wholesome for us to hear what an American, 
Mr. Frederic C. Howe, has to say about city building in 
Germany. He tells how Germany depends upon experts for 
city planning. A school for such experts has been opened 
in Berlin. These experts go from city to city to give advice 
and consult with the city authorities. The erection of 




Railroad Bridge in Paris. 



private and public buildings is watched to see that no 
shoddy work is done. 

" The German city begins at the bottom and builds 
up. In city building, as in the construction of a battle- 
ship, the keel is laid first. We recognize the necessity of 
a stable foundation when we erect a forty-story skyscraper. 
We recognize it even in a house. But we ignore it when 
we build a city." 



7o 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



It Controls the Land. In order to begin with the foun- 
dation, the land is the first thing to consider. The German 
city controls the land. It annexes territory far beyond its 
present extent in order to plan for the future. Then it 
calls in expert architects and engineers, probably from a 
neighboring university. " A plan is made of the surround- 







V* 


»»_— «*,rjj 


mmm^^^t^m 


ym*>"m Bm 



Why Do We Have Gas Tanks Like This? 

ing territory, of the topography of the land, the natural 
advantages, the proximity to the railways, and the probable 
uses to which the region will be put. The prevailing winds 
are studied, and factories are only permitted to locate in 
certain prescribed areas. In some cities they are excluded 
from the business and residence sections altogether. Maps 
of wide stretches of open country, still used as pasture 



THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 71 

land, may be seen in the City Hall, upon which are 
indicated the streets, parks, and building sites — all far 
beyond the city limits. To this plan the owner must 
conform. 

It Beautifies the Water Front. " Every bit of water is 
jealously preserved and developed, whether it be an old 



They Can be Made Like This in Dresden. 

moat, an inland lake, a little stream, or a river front. 
Water frontage is deemed a priceless possession, and it has 
proved so to a dozen cities. It is not permitted to pass 
into private hands. The Alsterlust, a fresh-water lake in 
the heart of Hamburg, is the centre of the city's life. About 
it the business as well as the pleasure of the city moves. 
The cities of Bremen and Diisseldorf have parked the 



72 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



moats which surrounded the old portions of these cities. 
They are the chief features of the city's beauty." 

It Foresees Future Development. The city planning 
expert is almost as necessary as the business manager. 
We are coming to believe that we cannot have an efficient 




An Effective Screen for a Railroad in Cleveland, Ohio. 



city or an efficient city population unless we plan ahead. 
Streets must be laid out carefully so that in width and 
direction and relation to each other they will serve future 
as well as present generations. It is poor economy to make 
very narrow a street which from its location will have to 
bear much traffic, or to make very wide a street which from 



THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 73 

its location will never have much traffic. It is poor economy 
not to save sufficient park space to provide for the growth 
of the city; not to provide for railroad terminals in a con- 
venient place; not to leave space for manufacturing 
concerns close to railroads, canals, and rivers; not to keep 
public buildings close together in the centre of the city; 
not to protect residence districts from the inroads of small 
business concerns. It is poor policy to have to tear up 
street pavements to lay sewers, water pipes, and telephone 
wires. It is good policy to tunnel a street before it is paved 
so that those things can be put in when needed. It is good 
policy to lay out the streets in such a manner that each 
house is insured an ample supply of sunlight and fresh air; 
it is good policy to make certain requirements of every 
person who erects a building, in order to be sure that no 
buildings are put up which are dangerous to health. 

It is very easy for us to look around and criticize the 
mismanagement of our cities. The really valuable thing 
is to make helpful suggestions and help to carry them 
out. Imagine yourself employed by your city as plan- 
ning expert, and write out your views on the following 
questions: 

i. What kind of training should you have had for that purpose? Would 
success as a lawyer, a physician or a manufacturer qualify you for that 
position? 

2. Would you have a public square? What buildings would you have 
there? 

3. What buildings does the city own? Could the business done in any 
two or more of these be conveniently done in one? Where are elections 
held? Political meetings? Does the city own any buildings where these 
could be held so as to save the cost of renting? 

4. Would you prefer many small or a few large parks? How close 
together should parks be? How would you keep children from injuring the 
grass, trees, flowers, etc.? 



74 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

5. Many European streets and roads are shaded by fruit trees. In 
some places, those who pass by may have as much fruit as they can eat 
and hold in their two hands. Late in the season the fruit remaining on 
the trees is sold. Would that be a good plan in our cities and along our 
country roads? 

6. What trees would you recommend for the streets of your city? Why? 

7. What is the origin and history of Arbor Day? Of what value has 
the observance of this day been to your state? How has the state recog- 
nized its value? 

8. Would you use part of a public park for golf links? Why? For tennis 
courts? Why? 

9. Would you have alleys? Why? 

10. Are the telephone wires and electric light wires in your community 
overhead or underground? If overhead, what can you do about it? 

11. Suppose some of the residence streets are much wider than the 
traffic requires, what can you do with them? 

12. What schemes can you devise for getting the public, old and young, 
to cooperate in keeping the streets clean — in refraining from throwing 
paper, peelings, etc., on the streets? 

13. How can you get people interested in keeping their own property 
in good repair, houses painted, lawns and back yards beautiful? 

14. What can you do with regard to the smoke nuisance? Hideous 
noises? Bill-board advertising? 

15. Do you know of any vacant lots in your city which should be secured 
for parks? 

16. The following ordinance has been adopted by the city of Redlands, 
California: 



ORDINANCES OF THE CITY OF REDLANDS, CALIFORNIA 

ARTICLE X 

Sec. 80. Appointment of Commission. There is hereby established 
a tree commission to consist of three members to be appointed by the board 
of trustees and to serve at the pleasure of the board, and the executive 
officer of such commission shall be known as the tree warden. 

Sec. 81. Power and A uthority. Said commission is hereby vested with 
power and authority to take charge of and supervise the care and main- 
tenance of all public parks and the planting, trimming and removing of all 
trees upon the streets and public places of the city. 



THE CITY BEAUTIFUL 75 

Sec. 82. Planting of Trees. Said commission and said board of trustees, 
or either of them, shall have the right to direct the kind and variety to be 
planted upon any of said streets, and it shall be unlawful for any person 
to plant upon any such street any tree without first obtaining a permit so to 
do from said commission or said board of trustees. 

From Street and Highway Planting by Ben Y. Morrison, California State 
Board of Forestry, Bull. No. 4, p. 112. 

Has your community such an ordinance? Would you recommend it? 

17. What is the most beautiful town or city you have ever seen? What 
plans did its citizens carry out in order to make it thus attractive? 

18. Are there any evidences in your city of careful planning? How has 
this early planning helped the appearance of your city? The expense to your 
city? 

19. The following resolutions are copied from a card designed to be hung 
in public schools? What do you think of them for the purpose? 

Let us not injure in any way any tree, shrub or lawn. 

Let us not kill or injure any bird or destroy any bird's nest or the eggs 
or the young. 

Let us not throw or sweep into the streets, alleys or parks any paper, 
fruit skins or rubbish of any kind, or throw any of these things upon the 
floor of any school or other public building. 

Let us not spit upon the sidewalks, street crossings or upon the floor of 
any street car, school house or other public building. 

Let us not cut or mark in any way fences, poles, sidewalks or buildings 
of any kind. 

Let us always keep our back yards as clean and beautiful as we keep our 
front lawns. 

Let us at all times respect the property of others as we would our own. 

Thus shall we become good and useful citizens, making our state beauti- 
Jul and worthy of our love and devotion. 

20. Do you know of any town with a village or town improvement society? 
Do you believe such an organization is needed in your own town? 



CHAPTER X 
HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 

When the English began to come to the New England 
coast, they settled first in small communities or towns. 
Groups of these towns united, for protection and other pur- 
poses, into larger colonies. The colonies of Massachusetts 
and Connecticut, for example, were thus formed. When 
the entire eastern coast was settled, the different colonies 
united to fight for independence. After they had won that 
fight, they remained together for other purposes. Their 
union became the United States of America. 

The colonies when they became states of this union 
were jealous of their powers and gave to the union only 
certain definite functions which it seemed absolutely neces- 
sary to delegate, such as control of the army and navy, 
and of the postal system.* They themselves continued to 
perform most of the services which they had previously 
performed for their citizens. Since they retained the right 
to all powers except those expressly delegated to the United 
States, their powers and duties have increased until now 
they touch the life of their citizens at almost every point; 
and their business has increased to such an extent that much 
office space is required to accommodate their employees. 

The Office Building of the State. Let us go into the great 
office building where the business of one of these states 

* See Chapter XI on the powers of the Federal Government. 
76 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 



77 



is carried on. The building itself, called the state capitol, 
in almost every state is such a beautiful and imposing 
structure of stone and marble with great halls and columns 
that one would scarcely suppose it a business establishment. 
Nevertheless, it is the center of many cooperative enter- 
prises of the people. 




Wisconsin Capitol. 



The Legislature. Here are the two great chambers in 
which the laws are made for the people of the whole state. 
In each room sits a bod}' of lawmakers elected by the 
people of the different sections of the state to express their 
will. One body is known as the Senate, the other as the 
Assembly. Before a measure can become a law, it must 



78 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

be voted for by a majority of the members in each of these 
bodies. The laws which these bodies pass concern subjects 
of interest to all the people of the state, while the laws or 
ordinances passed by a town or city concern subjects of 
merely local interest. Among the subjects acted upon by 
the two law-making bodies of the state, which are known 
collectively as the state legislature, are the keeping of 
order within the state, the prevention of crimes, such as 
murder and robbery, the regulation of business relations — 
ownership of property, tenancy, loans and mortgages; and 
the regulation of domestic relations: marriage, divorce, 
support of children, inheritance and other matters. The 
body of laws designed to define crimes and prescribe their 
punishment we speak of as the criminal law; that designed 
to guide us in our business relations with each other we 
speak of as the civil law. 

The Administrative Officers. Here is also an office for 
the governor, whom the voters of the state select to execute 
the laws which the legislature has passed. In some states 
the governor also has a right to veto laws passed by the 
Assembly and Senate. An assistant, or lieutenant-gover- 
nor, is elected at the same time; so is a secretary for the 
state, in whose office the records of the state are kept and 
the bookkeeping of the state in some states is done. Other 
officers are the treasurer, who has charge of the state 
revenues, and the attorney-general, who is the lawyer elected 
to represent the state in the State Supreme Court in all 
cases in which the state is a party, and to give legal advice 
to state officials. 

The Supreme Court of the state hears cases and makes 
its decisions here in the capitol. Most of these cases 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 79 

have been tried before in lower courts in the state, and 
are brought to the attention of the Supreme Court by 
people who have lost in the lower courts. The judges of 
the Supreme Courts are in most states elected by the people. 

The business of education is largely carried on by the 
state. The laws of the state require certain educational 
advantages for every community. Cities are often willing 
to spend more money and give better advantages than the 
state requires, but they and all the country communities 
must live up to the minimum requirements established by 
the state. They are required to provide so many months 
of school, teachers with certain qualifications and instruc- 
tions in certain subjects. A state superintendent is elected 
in most states to supervise the schools of the state. He 
has his office in the capitol. 

The governor shares the details'of administering certain 
kinds of laws with bodies of experts appointed for the 
purpose. These experts have their offices also in the capitol. 
In Wisconsin, for example, the laws relating to the con- 
ditions under which people work are administered by an 
Industrial Commission of three men. 

The Commissions. The State laws relating to food and 
public health are in the care of the Food and Dairy Com- 
mission and of the State Board of Health. The Fish 
Commission and Game Warden administer the game laws, 
and the Tax Commission the tax laws. The Public Utili- 
ties Commission regulates according to the laws of the 
state those corporations which supply the public with light, 
heat, water, and transportation. 

The Work of the State. To see the work of the United 
States Steel Corporation we should have to go not only 



80 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

into its office building but also into its great industrial 
plants. To see the work of the state we should have to 
leave its central office or capitol, and go out over the 
country. We should have to visit its great university, the 
schools and homes for dependents — deaf, blind, and insane, 
the industrial schools for boys and girls who have not had 
a good start in life and who have been sent to these schools 
that they may be trained to be good. and useful citizens; 
and the prisons for those who have broken the laws of the 
state and who need to be placed where they cannot injure 
others and where they, like the boys and girls, may be 
trained to good and industrious citizenship. We need to 
travel over the roads which the state has built, to go with 
the state inspector over the farms and listen to his advice 
as to the care of the cattle and the milk. 

-We need also to visit the branch office buildings of the 
state. Most states are divided into counties with branch 
office buildings or court houses, in each county. In each 
court house, of course, is the court room in which the 
judge of the county tries cases arising in the county under 
the laws of the state. Here is the office of the county~prose- 
cuting attorney, who is elected to represent the state in all 
prosecutions for crime in this county. Here is the county 
treasurer, whom the people of each county elect to collect 
and report to the state treasurer the funds collected in this 
county for meeting state expenses and for such local ex- 
penses as the building of roads and bridges within the 
county. Here is the auditor, the bookkeeper for the county. 
You would go to him to find out how much your taxes are 
to be. Here is the clerk from whom you would procure 
your marriage licenses, the recorder who registers transfers 
of property and other contracts; the county assessor who 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 81 

values property for taxation; and the county superintendent 
of schools, who gives examinations to teachers, and who 
visits all the schools in the county to see that the state 
school laws are enforced. Here, too, meets the body of 
men elected by the people of the county to make local 
regulations in regard to the building of roads and bridges, 
and the care of the poor in the county. 

The County and Its Work. Counties have their branch 
offices too. Each county is divided into townships, and 
every township has a trustee or board of trustees elected to 
look after the building of schools, the selection of teachers, 
and the relief of the poor. In many townships there are 
other officials also. 

State Finance. Our state organization performs many 
services, for all of which we pay. In carrying on the busi- 
ness of the state, careful planning and the keeping of 
accurate accounts by each department is just as necessary 
as in carrying on the business of the city. Some method 
of showing these accounts simply, and of calling the atten- 
tion of the people who pay to the various items, and of 
securing discussion of those items is just as much needed 
as in the case of the city. Grumbling at high taxes in 
general is not helpful. We need rather a thoughtful com- 
parison of the amount which we pay with the benefits we 
receive. 

In most states the heads of the various institutions 
calculate the amount they need to carry on the business 
for the next year or two, add the amount they would like to 
have for permanent improvements and estimate the whole 
at a considerably higher figure than they expect to receive. 
Their estimates are put together and presented to the 



82 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

legislature as an appropriation bill. The managers of the 
institutions themselves usually attend the legislature, and 
use all their power to secure a large appropriation. The 
legislature votes on the various items and then on the whole 
budget. In England, the estimates of the various institu- 
tions are all turned over to the cabinet members of the 
different departments; these members discuss the relative 
merits of the items, and agree on one appropriation bill or 
budget which they present to Parliament and which all of 
them support. 

The Budget. Such a system is possible there because 
all the members of the cabinet are members of the party 
in power in the House of Commons, and are responsible 
to it for what they do. They are members of Parliament 
and can be called upon in Parliament to explain their 
position on every item, and having decided on a certain 
amount for each purpose they stand together absolutely. 

The Continuing Appropriation. A scheme which some con- 
sider better adapted to our institutions is the continuing 
appropriation. There are certain expenses which are fairly 
constant every year, such as the support of the "state 
schools: universities, normal schools, and schools for the 
dependent. In order that the heads of these institutions 
should not have to labor year after year with the mem- 
bers of the legislature to secure a proper maintenance for 
the following year, some state legislatures have passed laws 
granting to each institution a certain per cent of taxation 
upon taxable property, and providing that in case the 
legislature fails to make an appropriation in any year, the 
rate granted for each institution shall be levied upon all 
the taxable property of the state. This is known as a con- 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 83 

tinuing appropriation and it sets a standard which a legis- 
lature does not like to lower, and which makes it possible 
for the authorities of a given institution to make plans for 
the future; to know that if they economize in one year in 
order to put up a building later, the legislature wilKnot lower 
their appropriation next year because they have a surplus. 

How Shall We Divide the Expense of the Work of the State? 
The next consideration is how we determine the amount 
which each of us shall pay for the service which the state 
renders. As in the case of the city, the amount we pay is 
usually based on the amount of income we receive or on 
the amount of certain kinds of property which we possess. 
In some states we pay according to the amount of our 
property, real and personal; in some according to our income; 
in some according to both. In many of them there are 
in addition taxes on corporations which do business in the 
state, on inheritances, on special businesses, such as the 
selling of liquor, and on vehicles. Some states go into 
debt for permanent improvements; others pay as they go. 
See Appendix, page 210. 

Suggestions for Reform. We have described very briefly 
the business and business methods of the state. There are 
many people who think that these methods are far from 
being economical and efficient. It is scarcely worth while 
to consider the criticisms of those who have no helpful 
suggestions to offer. Governor Hodges, of Kansas, is one 
of those who has lately offered some constructive criticisms. 
These relate chiefly to the legislature. 

The Kansas legislature he says considered 1700 bills in 
the session of 191 3 and passed 376 acts in its 49 days of 
existence. 



84 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

" In the closing days of the session, as in all legis- 
latures, there was lawmaking in hot haste and bills were 
rushed through under omnibus roll-calls, and the result 
was a lot of more or less crude and illy-digested laws, 
some of which are puzzles for even learned jurists to 
interpret with anything like satisfaction to themselves or 
to the public. " 

As a result: "Notwithstanding the fact my executive 
clerk and the attorney-general did their best to scrutinize 
all the bills, chapters 177 and 178, and chapters 174 and 
175, respectively, are duplicates. Chapter 75 of the Laws 
of 191 1 was repealed three times — first by section 3 of 
chapter 75 of the laws of 1913 ; by section 2 of chapter 

123 of the laws of 1913 ; and then by section 7 of chapter 

124 of the laws of 1913 ; chapter 318 of the laws of 1913 was 
immediately amended by chapter 319 of the laws of 1*913. 

" The law governing the inspection of hotels and lodging 
houses contains this provision: ' All carpets and equipment 
used in offices and sleeping rooms, including walls and ceil- 
ing, must be well plastered and kept in a clean and sanitary 
condition at all times.' 

"With all that, the Kansas legislature of 1913 was as 
efficient, as capable, as upright and honest as any legis- 
lature that ever sat; it passed many wholesome laws. 
There was not a single suspicion of corruption. It was as 
good a legislature as can be gotten together under the 
bicameral system, but it requires much more than honesty 
to make laws for a state. 

" What is commonly called the technical part of legis- 
lation is incomparably more difficult than what may be 
called the ethical. In other words, it is far easier to con- 
<:eive justly what would be useful law, than so to construct 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 8 5 

that same law, that it may accomplish the design of the 
lawgiver." 

He quotes from the Saturday Evening Post : " We 
legislate in convulsions when we legislate at all. The 
organism is so constituted that it must have a fit or lie 
dormant. 

" It is not a representative system. The people of Illinois 
do not conduct their personal affairs in rare bursts of frantic 
energy divided by long periods of torpidity. No farmer 
hires 30 men to debate about small grain from July 4th 
to July 30th and then harvest the oats on the 31st. Why 
should he regard a legislature which operates that way as 
representing him? " 

Governor Hodges' solution is this: 

" In my message of March 10, 191 3, I proposed to the 
Kansas legislature the substitution for the present system, 
of a one-house legislature consisting of 8 and not to 
exceed 16 members. One-half of them might be elected 
from districts and one-half of them at large, or they might 
all be nominated by districts and elected at large, with 
provisions for recall, and the initiative and referendum, 
which are imperative. These legislators should be elected 
for terms of four years each, with provision for expiration 
in rotation in order to secure stability and experience. 

" I further believe that these legislators should be nomi- 
nated and elected upon a non-partisan ballot, like that 
which has recently been provided in Kansas for the election 
of judges; or if not that, then with provision for minority 
representation. 

" They should be paid salaries which would enable them 
to give their time to the study of state affairs. They 
should meet at such intervals as the business of the state 



86 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

demands and should have power to employ expert assis- 
tance in the drafting of laws. 

" Such a body, able to meet without large expense 
whenever necessity required, would be a good business 
proposition for the people of the state. As it is, one co- 
ordinate branch of the state government is absolutely 
abandoned for a whole biennium, unless the legislature is 
convoked in an expensive, extraordinary session by the 
governor. It is as if the head of an important department 
of some other big business should give only fifty days every 
two years to its -management. 

" Such a legislature would give us fewer but better laws; 
it would give us laws that would need less interpretation 
from the courts and accordingly give us less litigation. It 
would be representative. As a matter of fact, under the 
present system the sovereign voter helps elect one repre- 
sentative out of 125, and one senator out of 40, and if his 
senator and representative happen to disagree, he is not 
represented at all. Under the one-house system, elected 
as I have proposed, each voter would cast his vote for 
either 8 or 16 members according to the method adopted. 
He can watch 8 or 16, and if he is alert, he may know from 
the daily newspapers on which one of them to fix the re- 
sponsibility for any particular action, but he cannot keep 
track of 165. 

" And this brings me to the matter of publicity. I 
would have published and distributed at state expense a 
journal of the proceedings of this House so that every voter 
in the state, if he cared, may know just what is going on. 
The more conspicuous a man is before the public, and the 
more clearly his responsibility is appreciated by the people, 
the harder it is for him to go wrong/' 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 87 

There are those who think that the reason the public 
receives incompetent service is that the voters have to 
elect so many officials that they cannot examine carefully 
the qualifications of the candidates nor watch closely the 
officials whom they have elected. These people are organ- 
ized into the Short Ballot League for the purpose of reducing 
the number of elective positions. 

We are told by Mr. Arthur M. Evans of the Short 
Ballot League that: " In Chicago at the 1912 election the 
voters struggled with a ballot containing 54 or 55 offices 
to be filled outside of presidential electors. A sample 
ballot, picked at random, contains 254 nominees for state, 
congressional, legislative, judicial, city and count}' offices, 
and in addition the names of 173 nominees for presidential 
electors, a total of 427. What voter, outside the wizards 
of politics, is able to make intelligent choice at one time 
from a page of 254 names put up for 55 offices? 

" The natural course in achieving the shortened ballot 
is to commence with state offices. So far as the federal 
government is concerned we have the short ballot. An 
elector votes for electors of president and vice-president, 
for United States senators, and for representatives in Con- 
gress. But in the state government the constitution piles 
a mass of elective offices upon the ballot. 

" The state government needs reorganization on the 
pattern of the federal government. 

" Why should the secretary of state of Illinois be elected 
when the secretary of state of the United States is appointed ? 

" Why should the electors be bothered w T ith electing an 
attorney-general of Illinois, when the attorney-general of 
the United States is appointed? The attorney-general of 
Illinois has not one-tenth as much work to perform as has 



88 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

the corporation counsel of Chicago, yet the latter is 
appointed. 

' Why should the state auditor, the state treasurer and 
the superintendent of public instruction be elected, rather 
than appointed? How many voters know enough about 
the men running for office, outside the really large positions, 
such as governor and mayor, to choose with intelligence? 
How many voters know the duties attached to the minor 
state offices? 

" Besides the state officers, the constitution loads on the 
shoulders of the voters a large accumulation of county 
officers and judiciary positions. What voter can take the 
time to acquaint himself with the respective merits of the 
small army of men who run for commissioners of Cook 
County? Who wants to vote on clerks of the courts, 
nothing but clerical positions, unless it be the patriots who 
are looking for jobs? The voters have so much voting to 
do that they cannot vote well.' , * 

At the regular election, the voter simply has to choose 
between one candidate of one party and one candidate of 
each of the other parties. At the earlier, or primary 
election, however, in which each party selects from a 
number the person who is to be its candidate for each 
office, the voter must often make his choice for each office 
from a long list of names. On the next page is a picture of 
the ballot from which the voters of New York had to select 
the candidates of their party in March, 191 2. This list was 
14 feet long and contained 590 names. The voter was 
given three minutes to perform his task of selection! 

The People's Power League of the state of Oregon offer 
this solution to their long ballot and their troubles. The 

* The Voter, Eleventh Year, Number 129, January', 191 2. 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 



89 



governor is to be a member of the legislature just as the 
English prime minister is a member of Parliament, and the 
cabinet is to be responsible to the legislature 
and subject, as is the English cabinet, to recall 
by the legislature. The legislature itself is 
to be subject to recall by the people. 

" The number of general officers of the 
state is reduced to two, the governor and 
state auditor. The Senate is abolished 
with a view to amplifying the repre- 
sentative machinery and vesting the mem- 
bers of the ' lower ' house with some of 
the conspicuousness which is an ele- 
ment of the short ballot principle." 

" The short ballot idea is carried 
into the counties where the author- 
ity would be vested in the county 
board, somewhat on the * commis- 
sion ' plan, who would carry on 
the business end of the county': 
afFairs through an appointive man- 
ager, who in turn would select and 
control the business officers like the 
treasurer. 

" The legal functions of 
county would be in the hands 
two appointees of the gov- 
ernor, the sheriff and the 
district attorney. This 
would work out logically 
the principle of the 
county as an agency of VoTING BY ^ Yard# 




9 o ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

the state government in administering justice. At the same 
time local public opinion would control these appointees 
through the operation of the recall. 

" The ballots are made still shorter by the lengthening 
of terms of office, and separation of elections. Thus in 
one year would fall presidential electors and a Congressman, 
in another the Governor, Auditor and State Representative, 
in a third, three county directors, and in a fourth group, 
judges."* 

Widespread Movement for Reforms in State Administration. 
Several states, including Illinois, Minnesota, and Iowa, 
have already appointed efficiency and economy commissions 
to study and report upon improved methods of administra- 
tion. None of them have gone so far in their recom- 
mendations for changes as has Governor Hodges or the 
People's Power League of Oregon, but all of them have 
suggested fewer elective officials and greater centralization of 
responsibility. Meanwhile some of the difficulties, espe- 
cially those of legislation, are slowly adjusting themselves. 

In the first place, laws are being better written than 
formerly. Let us consider for a moment how a law is 
actually made. 

The Lawmaker in Difficulty. John Jones comes to the 
legislature. He is a good citizen, a man of hard sense, 
well respected in his community. He finds that if he is 
to represent his district he must introduce bills and that he 
must in some way get those bills through the legislature. 
He must, first of all, get those bills drawn, and never having 
drawn a bill in his life and not knowing how such things 
should be done, it is very hard work for him. He is con- 

* Short Ballot Bulletin, April, 191 2, Vol. I, No. 8. 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 91 

fronted with two thousand bills on two thousand subjects, 
legal and economic. Complex questions which are not 
settled by the greatest thinkers today are hurled at his 
head. Even scientific subjects that the chemist or the 
physician or the man of science has had a hard time to deal 
with must be met by our John Jones, and that in the hurry 
and rush of committee work, and of his efforts to take care 
of the multitudinous duties placed upon him. If he is 
honest, he will try to draw his bills himself, or else he pays 
somebody to do it for him; but the easiest way is to con- 
sult somebody else. He finds around him bright men, 
well-paid lawyers, men of legal standing, who are willing 
to help him in every way. But it is seldom that he finds 
a true friend. They are there to look out for their own 
interests; to get hold of John Jones is their business. If 
he is honest and by persistent courage and sterling honesty 
fights his way through, — pushes his bills on to become laws, 
— those bills, having to do often with complex technical 
subjects, and being drawn by a man unskilled in law, are 
thrown out by the courts. Our United States Consti- 
tution says to each state: " There are certain things which 
you may not do, and certain things which the United 
States may not do." Each state constitution says to the 
state legislature: " There are certain things which you may 
do and certain things which you may not do." Hundreds 
of laws which the legislatures have passed in good faith 
have been afterwards declared by the Supreme Court of the 
state or nation to be unsanctioned by the constitution. 

Expert Aid for the Legislator. Clearly, John Jones needs 
help. He is receiving it in some states. Several states 
now provide, at the expense of the state, skilled lawyers to 



92 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

draw up in plain business-like language the bills which John 
Jones wants to introduce. In connection with these bill- 
drafting departments are reference libraries or bureaus, 
where the legislator may obtain from trained librarians 
information on almost every subject which comes before 
the legislature. Here he may find out what other states 
and other countries are doing, and how they are doing it. 
Here the expert bill drafter will find compilations of laws 
of the various states and countries which may serve as a 
guide or a warning to him in constructing bills. These 
reference libraries exist in many states which have no bill- 
drafting department. Many of the larger cities have also 
established them for the benefit of their lawmakers and 
administrators. 

Thus lawmaking has been improved by the employment 
of experts to give them suitable form, and of experts to 
supply general information. Experts are also being em- 
ployed to supply specific information. For example, the 
legislature of the state of Wisconsin passed a law express- 
ing the will of the people that women in the industries of 
Wisconsin should receive a living wage. Instead of the 
legislature spending its time disputing over the amount 
which constitu-tes a living wage, the legislature turned it 
over to their group of expert employees, known as the 
Industrial Commission, to determine for the people of the 
state, in any given industry, what that minimum is. The 
United States willed that the railroads should receive a rea- 
sonable compensation for carrying freight, but left it to 
the Interstate Commerce Commission to determine what 
that rate was, just as they leave it to administrative 
departments to provide the details in the building of a 
battleship or the digging of the Panama Canal. 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 93 

The Administrative Commission. The Wisconsin legis- 
lature willed that dangerous industries should be made as 
safe as possible for the worker, and employed the Industrial 
Commission to provide the proper safeguards. The Indus- 
trial Commission did this with the aid and advice of a body 
of men who understood their business — representatives of 
the State Federation of Labor, of the casualty insurance 
companies, and of the steel and harvester trust. The 
result of this cooperation was that the rules governing 
lighting which this committee compiled and issued have 
been adopted by the United States Navy as the best shop- 
lighting rules in the United States. 

There is no need to look back to the good old days when 
the country was well governed. Government is improving 
every day. States, as well as private businesses, are grow- 
ing more efficient. They grow more efficient because we 
all help, frankly admitting our faults as a state and doing 
all in our power to overcome them. 

DISCUSSION OF THE STATE 

In the days of the first immigration to America, almost 
every group of settlers brought with it a grant of certain 
rights and powers of government from the mother country. 
This statement of the form of government which they were 
to have was called a charter. Under its charter each 
colony governed itself until the colonies united to break 
away from the mother country. After they gained their 
independence, most of them continued to live under the 
same general form of government as before. Some of them 
kept their old charters as the form of government or " con- 
stitution " of the new state into which the colony has 



94 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

been transformed. Others made material changes, and 
some adopted entirely new constitutions. 

The states of the United States have thus had written 
constitutions from the very beginning. These constitutions, 
which were originally grants of power and rights from 
another government, are now merely agreements as to the 
form of government by the people of the state; in other 
words they are the laws which relate to the form of govern- 
ment. They differ from other laws of the state chiefly 
in the subject matter and method of adoption. Their 
subject matter is mainly the form of government; and they 
are much more difficult to adopt and to change than other 
laws which are merely passed by the legislature, and which 
relate only to those subjects upon which the constitution 
permits them to act. Every great modern state except 
England has the law establishing its form of government 
written out separately in the form of a written constitution, 
adopted with certain formalities by those who have political 
rights. In England, on the contrary, the form of govern- 
ment is not established by any one document called the 
constitution, but it is established by laws adopted from time 
to time by the same process by which all other laws are 
adopted. 

i. Study the constitution of your state* and discuss the following topics: 

(a) What is a constitution? 

(b) How can the constitution of your state be changed? Compare 

it in this respect with the constitution of the United States. 

(See Appendix p. 197.) Compare it with the Constitution of 
England. 

(c) How many times and for what purposes has it been changed? 

* The constitution of your state can probably be obtained from the Reference 
Library, if your state has one, or from the Secretary of State, or in the manual 
of your state. 



HOW THE STATE DOES ITS WORK 95 

Is it easy to change it? If possible, compare it in this respect 
with the constitutions of neighboring states. 

(d) What things did the people of your state forbid their legislature to 

do? Could they change this? 

(e) How many members are there in your lower house? In your 

upper house? For how long are they elected? Who is the 
member of each house from your district? How is he elected? 

(f ) Have you ever visited a session of your legislature? Who presides 

in the Senate? How does he obtain his position? Who presides 
in the lower house? How does he obtain his position? What 
are the duties of each? * 
Suppose that you, a citizen of your state, wish a certain law passed. 
How would you get the legislature of your state to consider 
it? What opportunity would you have to speak publicly to the 
members of the legislature in favor of your bill? What is a 
person not a legislator called who tries to influence the legis- 
lature to pass his bill? Is there any law in your state regulating 
the things that such a person can do to secure his object? 

(g) What were some of the important measures considered at 

the last session of your legislature? How did the members 
from your district vote on them? (See the Journals of the two 
houses.) 

(h) Talk over with your parents the scheme of Governor Hodges. 
What advantages do you see in a one house plan? What dis- 
advantages? What advantages and disadvantages in having a 
small number of legislators? 

(i) Follow the course of a bill from its introduction to the final dis- 
posal of it. 

(j) Who is the governor of your state? To what party does he be- 
long? On what platform or principles was he elected? For 
how long was he elected? What are his powers? Give an 
example of his use of each of those powers. 

(k) What other administrative officers besides the governor are pro- 
vided for by the constitution? How do they obtain their posi- 
tions? For how long? Is the work of each policy determining? 
Who is your Secretary of State? Treasurer? Attorney-gen- 
eral? What do you think of the Short Ballot suggestion for 
the last three? 

(1) How many sets of courts has your state? What is the highest 

* See the Manual of your state or a copy of the Senate and Assembly 
manuals for the procedure in both houses./' 



9 6 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

one called? The lower ones? Who are the judges of your 
highest court? How do they obtain their positions? 

2. What business carried on by the state affects you personally? 

3. With which of the state officials have you had official dealings? With 
which of the county officials? 

4. What is the state tax rate in your community? The city tax rate? 

5. Does your state have a general property tax? Income tax? Inheri- 
tance tax? 

6. Does your state go into debt? Which state has the highest debt? 
The lowest? (See Appendix, p. 210, for debt of the different states.) 

7. If your state is in dtbt, for what purpose has it borrowed? When 
does it expect to pay its dtbt? How does it raise the money for that pur- 
pose? 

8. In Appendix, p. 213, is a list of " Indiana Needs." Do these needs 
apply to your state? 



CHAPTER XI 

HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 

The United States of America and the United States of the 
World. You are a citizen not only of your city, your 
county, and your state, but also of that larger state made 
up of smaller states which we call the United States. You 
may well be proud to belong to a group of people who are 
intelligent enough to live together peaceably and pleasantly 
in such great numbers, and who, in order to secure the 
things they all want, work together successfully in spite of 
the necessarily huge and awkward size of their organizations. 
There are some who believe that the only condition under 
which you would have a right to be more proud would be 
that you belonged to a group of people intelligent enough 
to get along peaceably and pleasantly with all the world, 
working with all the world to secure the things which all 
want. When you look at the United States as it is today, 
and remember that it is only 150 years since Josiah Tucker 
was saying about this very United States that it never could 
exist, it seems that after all they may not be very rash 
who predict that there will some day be world peace and 
a great union of the states of the world into a United States 
of the World. 

The United Work of the States. As a city, we work 
together to obtain light, water, education, recreation and 
other things which one family cannot easily obtain for 
itself. As a state we work together for education, to care 

97 



98 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

for dependents, to improve conditions under which we 
work, and to do many things which one city cannot easily 
do for itself. As the United States we work together to 
distribute our mail, to protect our country against invasion, 
to protect the interests of our citizens in other countries, 
to keep the peace among the several states of the United 
States, to regulate trade and business transactions between 
the states, and to do many other things which one state 
cannot conveniently do alone. For many of these purposes, 
such as the protection of public health, education, and the 
keeping of the peace, city, state and nation all work. When 
the states decided that there were a number of things 
which it would be an advantage to them to do together, 
they drew up a statement of those things, and of the way 
in which they would do those things. This statement is 
known as the constitution of the United States. 

The Lawmaking and Law-Administering Bodies. The con- 
stitution provided first for a body of representatives to 
make the rules, or laws, in regard to those things which 
the states wished to do together. This body, which is 
known as Congress, is described by the constitution so 
well that you can study it out for yourselves. Next the 
constitution provided for a manager to carry out the rules 
and regulations of Congress. This manager or executive 
was to be selected, not by the Congress whose bidding he 
was to do, but by the people themselves in an indirect way. 
They were to select a few of their number, and these selected 
few, called electors, were to select the manager whom the 
states named in their constitution the president. At least 
that is the way our method of selecting a president would 
look to a foreign child who was reading our constitution 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 99 

and who did not know that the people of the United States 
are divided into five great parties, each of which selects 
a candidate for this position; that the people of the United 
States select their electors on the basis of the party to which 
they belong; and that no elector would dare vote for any 
other than the candidate of his party. 

The Irresponsibility of the Administering Bodies. There is 
another thing which would seem strange to a European. 
In almost all the important European countries, — in France, 
Austria-Hungary, Holland, Spain, Italy and Great Britain, 
and in the British Colonies, — Australia, South Africa, 
and Canada, the people select their lawmakers and leave 
these lawmakers to select the manager, or prime minister, 
as they call him, to carry out their will. That is the 
responsible government which we described in the fourth 
chapter. In the United States, however, the people select 
their lawmakers and then select for them the servant who 
is to carry out their wishes, with the result that our legis- 
lature and executive often clash in opinions and methods, 
and cannot agree because neither is responsible to the other. 
They cannot hold either responsible for a measure on which 
they disagree because the people have elected both. 

The Development of the United States Cabinet. Our legis- 
lature, or Congress, has given the president the power to 
employ helpers and advisers. These men are known as 
cabinet members. There are now ten cabinet members 
who divide up the work of carrying out the orders of 
Congress. At first there were only three of these assistants 
or secretaries. The secretary of state was to look after 
foreign affairs, — to carry on the correspondence with foreign 
governments and to direct our representatives in foreign 



ioo ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

countries: our ambassadors, ministers, and consuls. The 
secretary of the treasury was to oversee the coining of 
money, the collection and paying out of money voted by 
Congress for various purposes, and the national banking 
system. The secretary of war was to be the business 
manager in the work of building up the army and navy. 
These department managers met often with their general 
manager, the president. Soon they called into their coun- 
cils two more department managers — the postmaster-gen- 
eral and the lawyer, called the attorney-general, who 
represents the United States in all cases in which it is a 
party. Then the care of the army and navy became too 
much for one person, so a secretary of the navy was pro- 
vided. Then it became necessary to have a department 
manager for domestic affairs — the sale of public lands, 
Indian affairs, pensions, patents, the taking of the census, 
and other things. So a secretary of the interior was 
employed. It was thought desirable to give advice and 
look after the interests generally of the most numerous 
class of citizens, so a department of agriculture, with its 
secretary was established. As the years went on, another 
class of workers, the laborers in the manufacturing and 
transportation business, became as numerous as the farmers, 
and a division of the department of agriculture, called the 
bureau of labor, was made to look after their interests. 
The industrial and commercial classes finally convinced 
Congress that they needed a department manager for them- 
selves, and so a secretary of commerce and labor was 
provided. A few years ago the industrial classes secured 
the separation of their affairs from those of the commercial 
classes and were given a separate department and a secre- 
tary of labor in the cabinet. 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 101 

The Responsible Ministry of England. In England, Par- 
liament decides what kind of measures it wants and passes 
general acts which outline the policy, and which leave the 
details of administration to be supplied by the department 
heads who put those acts into execution. Each department 
calculates the amount of money necessary to carry out the 
different projects and all the departments put together the 
sums they require into a budget which they present to 
Parliament. The department heads are all members of 
either the House of Commons or the House of Lords, and 
they are usually called upon to discuss and defend every 
item in the budget on the floor of the House. In this way 
the body responsible to the people for the policy is able to 
hold responsible to it the body which carries out that policy. 
In the United States, the body which passes the law also 
determines how much shall be spent in carrying out each 
particular law, and the department manager has to do the 
best he can on the money allowed. Unless we had a respon- 
sible ministry, the budget system might not work as well 
here as in England, for the department managers who would 
make up the budget are not members of Congress; they 
could not be questioned on the floor of each house in regard 
to the different items they recommended; and they could not 
be removed from office by a majority vote of the lower House. 

The next question, is, how does the United States pay 
its bills? Of course, the people of the United States have 
to pay them, but the important consideration is to deter- 
mine how much each shall pay. 

The American Tariff to Protect Manufacturers. In the first 
place, everybody who buys certain goods which have been 
made in foreign countries and shipped into the United 



102 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

States pays a tax or duty on those goods. The United 
States collects it at the port from the person who ships it 
in, and that person collects it from the people who buy the 
goods by raising the price to cover the duty. When you 
buy imported hosiery you pay a tax of 20 per cent to 50 
per cent of its value. On cotton gloves you pay 35 per 
cent, on silks 45 per cent, on velvets and plushes 50 per 
cent, on china and porcelain ware from 50 per cent to 55 
per cent. Previous to 191 3 many more imports were taxed 
than are now. Iron and steel goods, woolen goods, sugar, 
and practically all the necessities of life were taxed. The 
object of much of this taxation was formerly to protect 
home manufacturers against imports from foreign countries; 
to raise the price of foreign goods so high that the American 
manufacturer would be able to produce goods cheaper than 
the foreign manufacturer could sell it to us. The tariff 
act of 191 3 removed much of this protection.* 

The story of how we came to have a protective tariff 
is interesting. One hundred years ago, when Napoleon 
with the French was fighting the rest of Europe, manufac- 
turing developed in the American states. When the war 
was over, the manufacturers were dismayed. They knew 
that they were paying American laborers more than English 
and European manufacturers paid for their labor, and that 
they could not, therefore, sell their goods as cheaply as he 
English and the European manufacturers. They would be 
driven out of business by cheap goods imported from abroad. 
They took counsel together and appealed to Congress. 
This is what they said: "The American laborer will not 
work for what the European laborer will work, as long as 

* Sugar was to have gone on the free list May, 1916, but, because of the war, 
this provision was su pended. 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 103 

there is plenty of cheap farm land. We cannot afford to 
sell our goods so cheaply as European manufacturers because 
labor costs more. We shall be driven out of business, and 
our workmen out of work. Put a tax upon European 
imports greater than the difference between the cost of labo 
at home and abroad. The European manufacturer, if he 
pays the tax when the goods arrive, will have to raise the 
price to cover the tax. The price of their goods will thus 
be higher than ours, and the people will buy ours." 

j The idea looked like a good one to Congress and it has 
acted upon it over and over again. But as time went on, 
some began to suggest that very little of the extra price 
paid by the American consumer, as a result of the tax, 
was going into the pockets of the American laborer; that 
the American manufacturer, instead of paying it to the 
American laborer in the form of wages, was taking foreign 
laborers into his factory at the low foreign wage as fast 
as he could. 

The Australian Tariff to Protect the Laborer. The people 
of Australia have adopted a unique method of meeting this 
difficulty. They favor Australian manufacturers on con- 
dition that certain standards in the treatment of employees 
are kept. For example, by an act of 1906, a tax was levied 
on imported agricultural machinery. One-half of that tax 
was also levied on home manufactures, unless goods are 
manufactured under conditions as to remuneration which 

(a) Are declared by resolution of both Houses of Com- 
monwealth Parliament to be fair and reasonable. 

(b) Are in accordance with terms of an industrial award 
under the Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1904, etc. 

Since 191 2 acts have been passed giving bounties to 



io 4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

certain manufacturers, among them sugar manufacturers, 
on condition that certain standard rates of wages are paid. 

The 1913 Revenue Tariff. We in the United States, after 
mam* years' experience with a protective tariff, removed 
the duties on most of the necessities of life, as we said 
before, by the tariff act of 191 3. The object of the tariff 
duties is now chiefly to produce revenue by a tax on goods 
coming in, rather than to protect American goods by keep- 
ing out foreign goods. 

Tobacco and Liquor Taxes. Another method of pro- 
ducing revenue is the tax on certain domestic manufactures. 
Every one who buys tobacco or liquor pays a tax upon it. 
The United States collects the tax from the producer; the 
producer makes the consumer pay it by raising the price 
of the product. 

The Federal Income Tax. A third method of collecting 
money is by taxing incomes.* Every individual who has 
an income of over $3,000, or in the case of married men 
with families, $4,000, pays a tax of at least 1 per cent, the 
rate increasing on incomes above $20,000. Every business 
corporation which has a net annual return of $5,000 pays 
a tax of 1 per cent upon that return. 

War Taxes. In time of war, other methods are resorted 
to in order to insure quick returns. Taxes are levied upon 
legal transactions, such as deeds and wills, stock transfers 
and insurance policies; upon bills of lading, express com- 
pany receipts, and drugs. The government has even written 
out promises to pay, or notes, and used them as money. 

* There is a strong probability that this law will be changed in order to raise 
more revenue to meet increased military expenditures which are advocated. 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 105 




Federal Meat Inspection. Marking Inspected and Passed Carcasses. 

The marking is done by means of a metal hand-stamp and specially prepared ink. 

Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



106 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

The National Debt. The nation, like the state and the 
city, also resorts to borrowing when that seems better than 
to ask the people for too much at once. It has borrowed 
to build the Panama Canal, to build warships, to carry out 
great irrigation projects, and to carry on war. The United 
States in 1910 owed #1,028,564,000, or #10.45 P er capita. 
France owed #160.25 P er capita, Great Britain #96.35 per 
capita and the German Empire #17.81. 

National Administrative Commissions. The United States, 
like the states, sometimes employs experts on a permanent 
commission to see to the administration of certain laws, 
instead of leaving it to the heads of departments of the 
cabinet who will be changed when the presidents are 
changed. Just as states turn over to industrial commissions 
the details and the carrying out of labor laws, so the United 
States has turned over to its interstate commerce commis- 
sion the details and the carrying out of all its laws in regard 
to railroads; and to the interstate trade commission the 
regulations of other corporations which do business in more 
than one state. 

Federal Protection of Health. The United States, like the 
states and the cities, makes laws for the protection of the 
public health. There is a Bureau of Public Health in the 
Treasury department which carries out those laws. The 
United States legislates on those matters which cities and 
states cannot conveniently control. These include regu- 
lations for the protection of the people of the United States 
against disease from foreign countries and from other 
states. The United States keeps medical officers at certain 
foreign ports to inspect ships sailing for the United States, 
to see that conditions are sanitary and diseases absent. 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 107 




Sheep and 'Hog Carcasses, Showing Government's New Type of Inspection 

Marks. 

Bureau of Animal Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



108 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

At the ports of the United States, another medical inspec- 
tion is made. Immigrants are inspected, and those who 
appear to be defective mentally and physically are sent 
back. 

The Federal Health service also has charge of the sani- 
tation of interstate trains and the exclusion of dangerous 
or infected merchandise from transportation. The states 
often call on the United States for help in controlling an 
outbreak of cholera, yellow fever, plague or typhus fever. 
In these cases, the federal officials take charge. Because 
of its power to regulate interstate commerce, Congress has 
the right to dictate the terms on which goods can be trans- 
ported. It requires, for example, that meat cannot be sold 
from one state into another unless it has been inspected by 
federal officials for signs of disease, and stamped with the 
government stamp, which would be a guarantee of its free- 
dom from disease if the inspecting force were always large 
enough to insure the public that the inspection was adequate. 

Federal Guarantee of the Medium of Exchange. Long before 
the federal government began to stamp some of our food 
as free from disease, it was stamping our medium of 
exchange as free from fraud. Our savage family produced 
for itself or took by force all it consumed. But as the 
family group became organized with other family groups, 
individuals learned to specialize in certain kinds of pro- 
duction, and to exchange their surplus products for the 
surplus products of others; for example, to exchange 
articles of food for articles of clothing. 

Sometimes these changes were inconvenient. Some of 
the articles were bulky and difficult to handle. Sometimes 
the products to be exchanged were not completed at the 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 109 

same time. Sometimes a person wished to divide the entire 
value of his product and exchange it for several kinds of 
products. At last people learned to exchange their products 
for valuable objects, such as beads, metals, etc., which they 
could conveniently keep for a time and later exchange for 
other objects which they really wanted. Thus money came 
into use. Now when you produce something for which 
there is a demand, you can exchange it for a piece of money 
which indicates the value of your product and which you 
can later exchange for products of that value. The govern- 
ments of the different countries have one by one taken charge 
of the production of this medium of exchange, or currency, 
so that you can be reasonably sure of its value. Gold and 
silver are the metals which have been found most desirable 
for this purpose. 

Free Coinage of Gold. If you should discover a gold 
mine, it would be difficult for you to exchange your gold 
nuggets for other products. People would be suspicious of 
the quality and weight of your nugget. But you could 
take your gold nuggets to the mints operated by the United 
States, and have them coined into pieces of uniform quality 
and size and stamped with the government's guarantee of 
size and weight. These two and a half, five, ten and twenty 
dollar gold pieces are readily acceptable all over the country 
for the products you desire. The currency of the United 
States is thus based on the principle of free coinage of gold. 

Gold and Silver Certificates. If you do not wish to carry 
around these pieces of metal, the government will deposit 
them in vaults for safe keeping and give you instead cer- 
tificates showing the amount of gold you have deposited 
with them These certificates are known as " gold certifi- 



no ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

cates," and you can exchange them for products as easily 
as if they were the gold itself because every one knows that 
the government will accept the certificate at any time in 
exchange for the gold in its vaults. 

Silver Money. Silver money is made by the government 
in much the same way, except that the government will 
not coin your silver for you as it does your gold. The 
government itself buys all the silver it coins, and does not 
put into the silver coins the full value which is stamped 
upon them For example, a silver dollar contains only 
sixteen times as much metal as a gold dollar, if we coined 
one, would contain; but gold is worth more than thirty 
times as much as an equal quantity of silver, so that in 
order that a silver dollar might be worth the full value 
which is stamped upon it, it would have to contain perhaps 
thirty times as much silver as a gold dollar contains of 
gold. The ratio of the value of gold and silver varies so 
that you will have to look it up to be sure of the ratio at 
present. Although a silver dollar does not contain a full 
dollar's worth of silver, we accept it at its face value, because 
we have confidence in the government. These silver 
dollars, like the gold coins, may be exchanged for the more 
convenient paper silver certificates. 

Greenbacks. Besides these gold and silver certificates 
the government has issued another form of paper money 
called greenbacks. These greenbacks do not represent 
metal coins, as do the certificates. They are merely the 
government's promises to pay, or notes. We accept them 
as payment for our products only because we believe that 
the government's promises to pay are good. The govern- 
ment had to use these during the Civil War to pay its debts, 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK in 

and since then it has used them to buy up silver to coin 
into money. 

National Bank Notes. There is a third kind of paper 
money which will soon disappear. That is the national 
bank note. The United States used to borrow money 
through national banks, give these banks promises to pay, 
or notes called United States bonds, and permit those banks 
to lend these promises to pay, as currency, to its customers. 
These are known as bank notes, because the name of the 
issuing bank is printed on each one. We all accept these, 
just as we do the greenbacks, because we have faith in the 
promise of the United States to pay. The practice of 
issuing them is to be discontinued, however, under the latest 
banking and currency act. Under this act a group of 
national banks may issue promises to pay which will be 
used temporarily, in times when there is great need for more 
currency, as when the crops are being moved in the fall, 
but these " federal reserve notes " will be taxed so that 
they will not remain long in circulation. 

Government Regulation of Citizenship. The United States 
not only guarantees the quality of currency and of food, 
but it also undertakes to guarantee, to a certain extent, 
the quality of those who become citizens. In the first place, 
only those who are reasonably sound physically are per- 
mitted to enter the country. In the second place, only 
those who have acquired a reasonable amount of informa- 
tion about their adopted country are permitted to become 
citizens of it. An alien who wishes to become a citizen 
must have lived in the United States at least five years, 
and must have declared his intention before the court in 



ii2 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

his locality at least two years before he petitions for admis- 
sion. His petition, which he files with the court in his 
locality, must give information as to his identity, residence, 
occupation, place of birth, name of wife, children, etc. 
The petition must also state that he is not opposed to 
organized government, is not a polygamist or a believer in 
polygamy, and that he renounces allegiance to his native 
country. Ninety days after this petition he may appear 
before the court with two witnesses to affirm the truth of 
the statements set forth in his petition. He is now sub- 
jected to an examination by a federal examiner who comes 
around to each locality at intervals. If he satisfies the 
examiner, he is given his papers of citizenship. 

The Federal Courts. The United States, like the city 
and the state, has its courts to decide cases arising under 
its laws, disputes between states and disputes between 
citizens of different states. There is one great court for the 
whole United States, called the Supreme Court of the United 
States. The United States is divided into nine circuits 
with a court in each circuit. These circuits are divided 
into districts with a court in each district. If a person is 
accused of violating the anti-trust law of the United States 
he is tried in a United States district court; if he is found 
guilty, he may under certain conditions carry the case to 
the Circuit Court; if found guilty there he may appeal for 
final judgment to the Supreme Court of the United States. 
This supreme court consists of nine judges appointed by 
the president for life. 

Business Locations of the Federal Government. The United 
States, like the states and the cities, has its central office 
building, where its executive, its lawmakers, its Supreme 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 113 




ii 4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

Court judges, and the heads of its great business depart- 
ments carry on their work. But to realize how much 
business the United States carries on, you will have to go 
to its branch offices in every city and town — to the post- 
offices, to the distilleries where its agents are measuring the 
liquor in order to levy the tax; to its customs houses, where 
its servants inspect the imports and collect the taxes from 
the importer; to the immigrant stations, where physicians 
inspect the incoming aliens; to its great agricultural experi- 
ment stations, from whence come advice and aid to the 
farmers; to the stockyards of our great cities, where the 
servants in its employ protect us from disease by watching 
the preparation of the food which is to be shipped from one 
state to another. Finally you will have to follow the mail 
carrier on his rounds over the country, as he takes the 
morning paper to the quiet homes and puts them in touch 
with the rest of the world. Then perhaps you will realize 
something of the wonderful ability of the human beings 
who have been able to devise this great business organiza- 
tion which we speak of as our United States. 

The Beginning of a World Federation. Considering the 
intelligence which has brought, out of the chaos of a thou- 
sand years ago, this great organization and the British 
Empire, the German Empire, the Russian Empire and the 
other great nations, a great many people dare to reflect 
upon a probable organization of all these nations for com- 
mon purposes. They point out that a common lawmaking 
body and a court have been established at The Hague. 
From your study of the history of the American states you 
know that, after they became independent, there was a 
period when they also had a common lawmaking body, 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 115 

but, like the present World Federation, no executive strong 
enough to carry out the laws, and no police to make the 
states obey the laws or to bring them into court for trial, 
or to enforce the penalties prescribed by the court. The 
new world union has a court to settle disputes, it is true, 
but no army and navy to act as policemen in making an 
erring nation settle its disputes without fighting. The 
international agreements and the court at The Hague seem 
to have been no more potent to prevent war than was the 
helpless government of the American Confederation. 

The Prospects for Peace in the Future. There was a time 
when every person carried his own weapons of defence. 
But individuals have turned over that duty to the city; 
cities have turned some of it over to states; states have 
turned some of it over to the federal organization of states. 
The Confederation failed but the United States has, on the 
whole, succeeded fairly well in keeping peace among the 
states. Perhaps it is not too much to hope that sometime 
the great nations may learn to transfer the duty of pro- 
tecting themselves against each other to a world union of 
states, which will make and enforce laws for them all. 

QUESTIONS ON THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT 

1. Turn to the constitution (p. 197) and indicate those things which the 
states agreed to do together. Show how it is more convenient for the 
states to do these things together than to do them separately. Indicate 
those things which the states forbade the United States to do. Check 
these places and be ready to read in class. 

2. Where in the constitution do the people of the states give to the 
United States the right to build the Panama Canal? To construct a rail- 
road in Alaska? 

3. What is Congress? Of what is it composed? Give five of its duties. 

4. How many states are there in the United States? Name and locate 
the possessions of the United States. 



n6 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

5. How many United States senators has your state? How many have 
the states on each side of your state? How are they selected? Read that 
part of the constitution which provides for each item. 

6. How many members of the House of Representatives are there from 
your state? If you could vote, for how many senators would you have a 
chance to vote? For how many representatives? Who are your senators? 
Who is your representative? 

7. What important questions were before Congress in the last session? 
How did your senators and representatives vote on them? 

8. What is the name of the daily newspaper which Congress publishes 
to describe what it is doing and to report its speeches? Does your library 
get a copy of it? 

9. Who is the present president? To what party does he belong? 
What are some of the most important principles of that party? What 
are the other four parties? Who were their candidates at the last 
election? 

10. Who are the secretaries of the different departments of administra- 
tion? (See some of the annual almanacs if you cannot find out by asking 
your parents.) 

11. In England, the member of the House of Commons for any district 
may be selected by the people of that district from anywhere in the country. 
How is it in the United States? Compare the two methods as to advantages 
and disadvantages. 

12. Compare our Senate with the British House of Lords as to: 

(a) Manner of obtaining membership. 

(b) Length of term of each member. 

(c) Power. 

13. Compare our House of Representatives with the British House of 
Commons in the same way. 

14. How can the constitution be changed? Compare the ease of changing 
it with the ease of changing the constitution of your state; of England; of 
Canada. How many times has the constitution of the United States been 
changed? What are the last two changes? 

15. Do you pay any federal taxes? 

16. What is the name of the main office building in the United States? 
What is the branch office building in your community called? What offices 
of the United States are located in it? What is the name of the main office 
building of your state? Of the branch office building? Of the main office 
building of your city? 

17. Who owns the following buildings : railway stations, churches, schools, 
fire stations, banks, police stations, electric plants, gas plants, waterworks, 



HOW THE UNITED STATES DOES ITS WORK 117 

insane hospitals, schools for blind, home for dependent children, uni- 
versities, express offices, jails and forts? 

18. Examine the four different kinds of paper money. 

19. Currency is used to measure the value of goods. Suppose there is 
much currency and few goods in the country, will prices of goods be high 
or low? Suppose there are many goods but little currency, will prices be 
high or low? 

20. Suppose that because of the discovery of gold or for any other 
reason, the amount of currency in the country increases. What effect will 
that have on the prices of goods? 

21. Suppose you mortgage your farm to borrow $1000 for 10 years. 
During that ten years the amount of currency in the country increases faster 
than the amount of products. What effect will that have upon prices 
of products? When you repay the $1000, will that $1000 buy as much, or 
less, or more than $1000 would buy when you borrowed it? Does the 
borrower or lender gain by an increase in the amount of currency? Why? 
By a decrease? Why? 

22. In the early history of the United States there was a constant 
struggle between the settler on the western frontier, who had borrowed 
money from the east, and the eastern financiers who had lent them money. 
One party wanted the United States to issue paper money so there would 
be more currency, the other opposed it. From the facts just brought out, 
which ones do you suppose wanted more currency? Why? Which opposed 
it? Why? 

23. In the Civil War money depreciated in value. Why? 

24. What is meant by the phrases " a gold standard "; " free coinage of 
silver at the ratio of 16 to 1 " ? 

25. Here are some of the questions which you would be called upon to 
answer if you were applying for admission to citizenship. How many can 
you answer satisfactorily? 

(a) What is an anarchist? Can an anarchist become a citizen? 

(b) What is a polygamist? 

(c) By whom is the United States governed? 

(d) What is the head of the government called? Who occupies 

that office at present? How was he elected? 

(e) What is our form of government called? 

(f) What is the constitution of the United States? 

(g) Who makes the laws for the United States? What is the 

upper house called? The lower house? 
(h) How are the members of these two houses selected? 
(i) How many senators has your state? 



u8 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

(j) What is the purpose of the courts of the United States? 

(k) How do the judges of the Supreme Court obtain their positions? 
How long do they hold office? 

(1) What is the capital of the United States? 

(m) How many states are there in the United States? (know their 
names and the names of their capitals.) 

(n) Who makes the laws of each state? 

(o) What is the head of the state called? Who is he? What power 
has he? How is he selected? 

(p) Where does the state legislature meet? 

(q) What reasons have you to know that there is a United States Gov- 
ernment? 



CHAPTER XII 
JUSTICE 

The Wager of Battle. Cedric and Wulf had a disagree- 
ment in regard to the line between their wheat fields. There 
was no fence, and Cedric accused Wulf of plowing on 
Cedric's side of the line. Wulf said he was on his own side, 
and they proceeded to fight it out with clubs. In the 
" wager of battle " Wulf knocked Cedric senseless. When 
Cedric recovered both agreed that God was on WulPs side 
because Wulf was able to win over Cedric. So Cedric 
gave up his claim to the ground 

There had been no one to whom they could go for a 
settlement of the question. That was in England, almost 
ten hundred years ago. King William was busy trying to 
make all the great landowners recognize his authority; and 
the landlord of Cedric and Wulf, like all the others, was 
too busy fighting with or against the king to trouble himself 
with the little troubles of his tenants. 

But in the course of a few years the king subdued the 

lords, and the lords had time to look after their estates. 

The lord now demanded that when disputes arose between 

tenants they must be brought to him for settlement. But 

in settling these disputes, as in deciding upon the guilt or 

innocence of a person accused of breaking the laws of the 

lord, the wager of battle or some method of ordeal was used. 

In every case, the landlord simply judged as to what God's 

will appeared to be from the result of the trial by ordeal 

or wager of battle. 

n 9 



120 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

Trial by Jury. But as the English kings grew more 
powerful, they coveted the court fees which the landlords 
collected. So they sent their own judges out over the 
country to decide disputes among the landlords and their 
tenants. Instead of deciding the case by the result of a 
wager of battle or an ordeal, these judges called together 
a number of the neighbors of the disputants, usually twelve, 
and asked them to investigate the case and report their 
conclusion or " verdict " later. These men were called 
jurors because they had to say " Juro," that is, " I swear," 
to the truth of what they said. 

Young Cedric, great-grandson of the first Cedric, and 
young Wulf, great-grandson of the first Wulf, were plowing 
one day in their fields when Cedric protested that the 
latter was encroaching upon Cedric's ground. They quar- 
reled for an hour without reaching an agreement. Wulf 
went on with his plowing on the contested land. 

A few days later, the king's judge, while making a cir- 
cuit of the country, came to the neighborhood to see if 
there were any disputes to be settled and any crimes to be 
punished. By this time, the kings had subdued the lords, 
and had taken over the business of keeping order through- 
out the country. As soon as the judge arrived and opened 
his court, Cedric appeared on the scene and complained 
that Wulf had seized some of his land. The judge sent for 
Wulf to come and defend himself and for the neighbors 
of both. When the neighbors arrived the judge said, 
" Now, those of you who know about the facts in this case, 
sit over there as witnesses, and those of you who know 
little or nothing about it, sit over here, as a jury." 

Then he called up the witnesses, one by one, and ques- 
tioned them to find out who really had a right to the land, 



JUSTICE 121 

the plaintiff or the defendant. When he had secured from 
them all the information possible, he said to the jury, 
" Now, you may leave the room until you agree as to 
whether the land belongs to the plaintiff or defendant." 
The jury was out for a few minutes, and came back with 
the verdict that Cedric was right and that Wulf must give 
up the land. 

Wulf was very much incensed. Cedric had taken a 
mean advantage of him. Cedric could just as well have 
taken his complaint to the lord as to the king's judge. If 
he had, Wulf would have won the case, for the lord would 
have settled the case by looking on while the two fought 
in a wager of battle. The lord would merely have decided 
which won, and Wulf, being much stronger, would surely 
have won. In fact, it was to attract the weak, like Cedric, 
and to collect their fees, that the king had started his trial 
by jury. 

But Wulf's troubles were not over. The judge had 
appointed a number of the prominent men of the neighbor- 
hood to watch during his absence for violations of the 
king's law. These men, known as the " grand jury," as 
distinguished from the " petit " or little jury which rendered 
the verdict in Wulf's case, now reported to the judge that 
Wulf's brother, Edgar, was suspected of having stolen a 
cow. On their accusation, or indictment, the judge sent 
the sheriff to arrest Edgar for breaking the king's law. 
Edgar was brought before the judge. The neighbors were 
called as witnesses, and the jury was sent out to determine 
its verdict. It was out for a long time. The defendant 
grew very anxious. It returned at last, only to report 
that its members could not agree. Two men believed the 
defendant to be innocent, the others all believed him guilty. 



122 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

Edgar was dismissed for the time, with the understanding 
that if enough additional evidence could be secured to 
convict him, he would be arrested and tried again. 

The New Wager of Battle. Eight hundred years have 
passed since then. Laws have changed to suit conditions, 
but the methods of enforcing them have changed little. 
The principal difference is that laws have grown so com- 
plicated that neither those who bring a dispute before a 
court to be settled by a jury and judge, nor those who are 
accused of breaking the law dare to come before the court 
without an expert in the law — a lawyer — one who makes 
it his business to interpret the law to the people. These 
lawyers are paid by the litigants, not only for their services 
in interpreting the law but also for their services in preT 
senting to judge and jury the facts as well as the law in the 
case in the most favorable light for their clients. 

The simple questions of right and wrong which the 
neighbors were called upon to help decide no longer have 
the most important place in our courts. The industrial 
revolution, which has changed the little workshop into a 
complex factory system, has created complex questions of 
right and wrong. Our legislatures must provide laws which 
give justice under the new conditions; our courts must use 
all the knowledge available in applying these laws to par- 
ticular cases. 

The two Wulfs and the two Cedrics lived simply. They 
needed very few laws to protect them. They had large 
families — and they needed them. They needed the young 
folks to work in the fields, if they lived in the country; to 
help in the trade, if they were bakers or coppersmiths in 
town. They needed the old folks to do the spinning, 



JUSTICE 123 

weaving and knitting and to make the soap and candles 
and sausage. When Wulf died he left to his family the 
same right which he had had to use the land on which they 
lived. The whole family, women, children and old people, 
were self-supporting and needed no help. There was no 
problem of providing for old people, widows with fatherless 
children and unemployed or injured workmen. 

But come on down through the eight centuries, into the 
midst of the industrial revolution. Let us take a look at 
the Wulf family in 1895 an d see now tnev compare with 
their ancestors. 

A New System of Justice Needed. They call themselves 
'Wolf" now. They moved into town in 1890. In fact, 
over 50 per cent of the population is now living in town, 
as compared with 10 per cent of a century or so ago. Mr. 
Wolf was a healthy farmer, so he easily found work in a 
meat-packing house. His three children went to school. 
His old father could do nothing but potter around aimlessly 
all day and long for some chores. His wife was kept busy 
in the home. In the country she had helped with the farm- 
work besides taking care of the house. In the city, however, 
she found herself quite as busy without the farmwork. 
The city smoke and dirt kept her cleaning the house and 
washing clothes much of the time, and numerous trips to 
the grocery and dry-goods stores were necessary in order 
to spend their small income as wisely as possible. Often 
she longed for the butter and egg money with which she had 
provided for most of the needs of the family in the country. 

One day an ambulance stopped in front of the house. 
Mr. Wolf was lifted out, unconscious. Friends explained 
to his wife that a fellow workman had accidentally in the 



124 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

course of their work together struck him with an ax, and 
injured him severely. 

For weeks he lay helpless. He needed his wife's care 
for a time, so she took the two older children out of school, 
and put them to work. They earned little, so she finally 
had to go out herself and work by the day. All day she 
washed and scrubbed for other people. Half of the night 
she cleaned the house and washed and cooked for her own 
family. 

After weeks of illness the father died. It was a little 
easier, perhaps, for the family now to support itself, but 
still the children could not go back to school; still, the 
mother continued to do a man's work and a woman's work 
too. Still the old man pottered aimlessly about, feeling 
himself a burden and wishing that he could die. 

Mrs. Wolf before her husband's death had stated his 
case to a lawyer to see if they could recover any damages 
from her husband's employer. She was told that if her 
husband's injury could be proved before the courts to have 
been due to the fault of the employer, they might receive 
something; but that since her husband was plainly injured 
through his own carelessness or that of a fellow servant, 
they could not win the case. The employer's liability for 
injuries received in his factory was limited to injuries for 
which he was directly responsible. 

If Mr. Wolf could have afforded it he would have bought 
enough insurance to support his family in case of his death. 
Most people who cannot leave a farm or a business to their 
families provide for them in this way if they can. But 
Mr. Wolf, like many wage earners, did not receive enough 
wages to pay for more than the bare necessities from day 
to day, and so he could not pay for an insurance to support 



JUSTICE 125 

his family in case of accident or death. Neither could he 
save enough to live upon in old age without feeling that 
he was depriving his family of things which they should 
have. Because of this condition of the workingman most 
European countries provide for some kind of old age, 
unemployment, and sickness insurance and widows' pen- 
sions. We have been slow in the United States to make 
such provisions, partly because we did not feel the need of 
them so soon as Europe did. 

Employer's Liability. One of the first signs of thought 
along this line was the enactment into statute in the various 
states of the old common law principle that an employee 
could sue his employer for damages when the employee 
was injured through the fault or negligence of the employer 
or of one of his employees These laws were known as 
employer's liability laws. When cases under them came 
before the courts, two points always had to be decided 
upon: first, whether the accident occurred through the 
fault of the employer; second, if it did occur through the 
fault of the employer, how much damage should be awarded. 

The trouble with this system was that every case in 
which the employer and the injured man or his family could 
not agree, was taken to court and resulted in great expense 
and delay. The Review of Reviews for August, 1910, gives 
a number of examples of cases of this kind. Among these 
was the case of G. 

G was known as a sober, industrious workman. One 
day while working at his trade of steam drillman he was 
instantly killed by a falling embankment. The employer 
paid funeral expenses only and then suit was brought. 
When investigated two years and two months after the 



126 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

accident the case had not yet come to trial, although the 
lawyer who had taken it up on a 50 per cent contingent 
basis had done all he could to hasten it. 

" New York courts trying personal injury cases are 
commonly more than two years behind on their calendars; 
the number of cases to be tried is so large that the machinery 
is inadequate. After the case has come up there are usually 
appeals and stays so that not uncommonly four years elapse 
from the accident to final settlement, and then the result is 
most uncertain. 

" The family of G consisted of a wife, who was not 
strong, and five children, the oldest eleven. The wife was 
forced to go to work after the funeral working in a laundry 
and acting as janitress. Her small wages was insufficient 
to support the family and had to be supplemented by 
private charity. One society is still giving a regular weekly 
pension and has expended nearly #200 upon this family 
to date. A church also has given regular aid." 

This is the way the secretary of the Texas Legislative 
Board of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen and 
Engineers describes the problem and its solution: 

" We believe that every industry should be made to 
bear its own costs, not merely of the inanimate factors of 
its plant and materials but also of the lives of human beings 
consumed in its activities. Just as provision must be made 
for the constant deterioration and ultimate destruction of 
all its perishable physical properties, even so the same 
provision must be made for the loss of lives and the personal 
injuries sustained among its employees and incident to the 
work in which they are engaged. 

" The death of a human being occasioned in the course 
of employment in an industrial occupation is the destruction 



JUSTICE 127 

of a part of the industrial plant itself. A dead man must 
be replaced just as a destroyed engine must be replaced, 
and the value of the life which has ceased to exist should 
be paid to those who were dependent upon it. A business 
which will not produce a profit sufficient to pay for its 
outworn and cast-away facilities is doomed to bankruptcy 
and should be abandoned. Even so, a business which will 
not pay for lives that are lost and injuries that are sus- 
tained in its service, is existing by continually defrauding 
a part of its creditors. Such a business should be wound 
up, and the capital, skill and energy which are being used 
so unprofitably should be diverted to other channels." 

On this theory, many of the states have passed work- 
men's compensation acts which provide that when a work- 
man is injured in the course of his work, the business which 
was employing him must pay him a definite sum, varying 
with the nature of the injury and the duration of his dis- 
ability. The workman does not have to incur the expense 
and delay of a suit in the courts. Of course, there are some 
disputes as to the nature and duration of the injury, but in 
many of the states, such as Ohio, Kentucky, and Wisconsin, 
these disputes are settled informally by the Industrial Com- 
mission, and do not have to go through the lengthy for- 
malities of court procedure. 

The New York legislature in 1910 passed a workmen's 
compensation act. Soon after, Earl Ives, a switchman, 
fell from a car of the South Buffalo Railway Company and 
claimed he was injured by reason of the necessary risk of 
the employment. He was unable to work for four weeks 
and demanded compensation at the rate of #10 per week 
to which he was entitled under the law. He was refused 
and brought suit. The court decided that the company 



128 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

must pay. The company carried it to the highest court, 
and the highest court held that the employer need not pay; 
that the law was unconstitutional because the constitution 
gave the legislature no right to pass a law of the kind; 
that the law was void. 

The 1913 legislature passed * similar bill, with its pro- 
visions changed slightly to meet the objections of the court 
to the earlier law. This law the courts have upheld. The 
history of this law illustrates one of the most important 
powers of the courts — their power to decide whether the 
constitutions of the state and of the United States permit 
the passage of any given law. The constant exercise of 
this power, as well as the expense and delay incident to 
carrying a case through one court after another has raised 
considerable criticism of the courts and their methods of 
administering justice. Many of the suggested methods of 
improvement are directly opposed to others. Some suggest 
the election of judges for short terms; others believe in 
appointment for life subject to recall by the legislature or 
the people. Some would abolish the jury in most cases; 
some would permit three-fourths of the jury to render a 
verdict. Some would have certain judges specialize in 
certain kinds of complicated cases; others would give the 
judges an even greater variety of cases than some of them 
now have. Some would give the people power to recall 
judges, some would give them the power to repeal, by 
popular referendum, decisions which appear to them to be 
unfair. Many believe that the education of lawyers in 
economic and social lines would greatly improve the admin- 
istration of laws and probably the laws themselves. All 
agree that a simpler procedure is needed in order to quicken 
the action of the courts. The legislatures of most states 



JUSTICE 129 

are helping to relieve the courts by taking away from them 
cases like those under the workmen's compensation acts, 
which can be handled rapidly and informally by such bodies 
as the various industrial commissions. Most states, too, 
are earnestly trying to secure better written laws, so that 
the courts need not be called upon constantly to determine 
the meaning of ambiguous expressions. Eighteen states 
now make some provisions for the drafting of bills by 
lawyers employed by the state for the purpose. 

Old Age Insurance. Among the requirements of a system 
of justice we mentioned the insuring of proper maintenance 
during old age to the person who has worked hard all his life 
and in old age has not the means of subsistence. In the 
United States so far we have left this problem for each indi- 
vidual to work out for himself. In Germany, every employee 
is compelled to save a certain per cent of his wages; his 
employer contributes a like sum, and the state adds to that. 
This forms an insurance fund for the worker. In England, 
every person who has reached the age of seventy years and 
whose means do not exceed £31 10s. annually is entitled 
to from is. to 5s. a week. In New Zealand men over 65 and 
women over 60 receive pensions varying with their means. 

Improvement in Laws. There are many who say that 
justice will not exist until everyone is given a fair start and a 
fair chance in the world. Every child, according to them, 
must be guaranteed good health, an education, training for an 
occupation and when grown certain employment at a wage 
which shall be sufficient to maintain him in the comfort that 
is due to every industrious citizen. If you go over a copy of 
the statutes of your own or a neighboring state, you will find 
that a large per cent of the laws are passed to secure justice in 



i 3 o ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

this sense. There are the child labor and compulsory educa- 
tion laws, the mothers' pension acts, the minimum wage laws, 
the laws establishing employment bureaus, and many others. 
The minimum wage laws in this country apply only to 
women in certain industries, but in England they apply to 
men as well. 

There was a time when the physically strong took 
whatever they wanted from the physically weak. But the 
physically weak have learned by organized and intelligent 
effort to defend themselves against the physically strong. 
And now public opinion is demanding health, strength, 
education, reasonable hours of labor and a comfortable 
living for all. 

The old artists pictured Justice as blindfolded, holding 
the scales for others to fill. The Justice pictured by the 
painters and writers of today is too busy to sit with blind- 
folded eyes. She must see everywhere and everything; 
hence they have given her field glasses and a microscope to 
supplement her own good eyesight. They would have her 
use not only all her senses but also all the aids of science 
to help her decide what is right in our complex civilization. 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XII 

i. Was the case of the older Wulf and Cedric a civil or a criminal case? 
Of the younger Wulf and Cedric? The case of Edgar? What is the difference? 

2. Do you know of any civil case? A criminal case? 

3. What is the plaintiff? The defendant? Verdict? Witness? Indict- 
ment? The grand jury? The trial jury? What happens when the trial 
jury cannot agree? 

4. In what ways was the employers' liability scheme a wasteful one? How 
did the workmen's compensation method improve upon it? What elements of 
waste and inefficiency do you see in the workmen's compensation laws? 

5. Does your state have a workmen's compensation act? If it does, 
procure a copy of it and find out what the terms of compensation are. What 



JUSTICE 131 

kind of injuries does it cover? Does it provide for sickness as well as acci- 
dents due to the industry, as do the German and English laws? 

6. How much insurance do you think a man would need to leave his wife 
and three children in order to support them until the children have received 
their education and are ready to work? 

7. How much per year would it cost a man to keep as much insurance as 
that on his life? 

8. What wages do you think he would need to make in order to pay for 
the insurance without depriving his family of the necessities of life? 

9. Within your observation, what occupations cause most deaths, 
disease or accidents? 

10. What is the average wage in those occupations? 

11. Should an occupation pay sufficient wages to cover the cost of insur- 
ance against its own hazards? 

12. Under our workmen's compensation acts, who pays the cost of insur- 
ance against accidents and death? Is the payment adequate in your state? 

13. Would it be better for the family to receive the payment in a lump 
sum or in regular installments? 

14. Do you prefer the German or the English system of old age insurance? 
Who pays for it in each case? Debate the question: Resolved that the 
English old age pension system would be better for the United States than 
the German old age insurance system. 

15. Suppose everyone voluntarily saved enough to provide for himself 
in old age. How could he safely invest his savings? 

16. When our forefathers were pioneer settlers in the United States did 
they need to save for old age? Why? Can we do as they did? Why? 

17. When you pay freight on an article, what items is the price you pay 
supposed to cover? 

18. Has your state a minimum wage law? What industries are under 
it? What is the minimum wage in those industries? 

19. At what age can young people begin to work in your state? What 
provisions as to hours, kinds of employment, etc., are made for protecting 
young people? 

20. Has your state a mother's pension law? 

21. What conditions would exist in your community if each individual 
punished the man who had injured him? 

22. Why do we have a public agency to correct wrong-doers? 

. 23. How many and what courts have jurisdiction over you? Give an 
example of a condition under which you might come before each court for 
a decision. 

24. Has the method of settling disputes by the wager of battle entirely 
disappeared? 



CHAPTER XIII 
EDUCATION 

Vocational Education in Schools in the Middle Ages. A thou- 
sand years ago, after the Germans had moved into the 
Roman Empire, all the boys who went to school were learn- 
ing to be priests or monks. The only schools were those 
established by the church to educate boys for the clergy. 
Girls did not go to school at all. 

The only books they had were religious books, and these 
were all in Latin. The church services were in Latin. 
Consequently the boys, whether German, French, English, 
or Italian, all had to learn to read and write in the Latin 
language. That was practically the only preparation they 
needed for their life's work. 

New Vocations and New Subjects. In the course of 
several hundred years, they read all the religious books, 
and then they found and read many Latin books which 
were not religious, such as the works of Caesar, Cicero, 
Virgil, and Horace. They found many Greek books, and 
were so curious to learn facts from them that they learned 
to read Greek. From the Greek books, they learned the 
facts of mathematics, natural science, and philosophy which 
the Greek and Roman world possessed when the Germans 
moved into it. At the same time, the Germanic peoples 
themselves were being formed into nations and were making 
a body of laws by which to live. Besides Latin and 

132 



EDUCATION 133 

religion, or theology as they called it, the schools began to 
teach law, philosophy, mathematics, Greek and a little of 
science. To these church schools came great teachers and 
pupils. Organized groups of these teachers and pupils 
were known as universities. Not only did those who 
intended to be clergymen, but also those who intended to 
be lawyers, teachers, and students of science came to school 
now. 

Vocational Education in the Homes. The sons of farmers, 
craftsmen and shopkeepers, like the girls, did not go to 
school. They did not need to. They could learn their 
trades by going to live with a skilled workman as an appren- 
tice, or from their fathers and mothers at home. Few of 
them could read or write, as this knowledge was not 
necessary in their business. There were no newspapers, 
and books were so expensive that they could not have them. 
Thus the homes prepared these young people for their 
work, while the schools prepared for their work those who 
intended to be clergymen, lawyers, physicians, students 
and teachers. 

When the invention of printing made books cheap, and 
the confusion of feudal times changed to strong nations 
which kept peace within their borders, more people had an 
opportunity to study. Books were cheaper, newspapers 
appeared and people accumulated property now that there 
was less danger from war. A leisure class of property 
owners became interested in education and art. But the 
schools were still private, and while the number of people 
who could read was increasing, very few poor children went 
to school. The schools still prepared people to do the 
intellectual work and not manual labor. 



134 



ELEMENTARY CIVICS 



The School Taken Over by the State. It was our own 
country which established and popularized the system of 
free public schools, supported by the state — schools open 
to all. It seems hard to realize that there was ever any 
question of public support of schools. But we are told 
that in 1844 a Rhode Island farmer told Henry Barnard 
that it would be a ssensible to propose to take his plow 
away from him to plow his neighbor's field as to take his 
money to educate his neighbor's children. 




(New) South End Junior High School, Houston, Tex. 

At first, only very simple things were taught in the 
public schools, — reading, writing, and arithmetic — such 
things as an intelligent farmer and his wife would need 
to know in order to keep accounts, be informed on politics, 
and write letters. The education of professional men — 
doctors, lawyers, teachers, and clergymen — was provided 
for by private gifts. John Harvard, for example, left money 
to establish and maintain a University — since known as 
Harvard — for this purpose. As the population increased, 
and settlers moved westward, the eastern universities were 



EDUCATION 135 

not easy of access; so the western states added to their 
other schools a free state university. In this way it was 
made possible for a man to prepare himself to be a lawyer, 
a teacher, or a physician in a free school at the expense of 
the state. 

In addition to the lower schools, and the colleges and 
universities, private schools grew up which prepared young 
people for the universities. The cities of many states soon 
established free high schools; in the last few years the 
country districts have done the same. 

The Schools of the State Opened to Girls. Girls were not 
admitted into the first high schools and universities. It 
was only after strenuous efforts had been made by women 
eager for knowledge, that the men in authority were con- 
vinced that the education of women would be an aid to 
society and that intelligent women would be better wives 
and mothers than ignorant ones; that a knowledge of litera- 
ture would not hinder a farmer's wife from being a good 
butter maker any more than it would hinder the farmer 
from being a good corn grower. We are so accustomed to 
seeing girls go to high school and college that we are likely 
to forget that less than a hundred years ago the women 
were fighting for that privilege just as they are fighting 
today for the right to vote; and that exactly the same 
arguments were advanced then against educating them as 
are now advanced against giving them the vote which 
education should prepare them to use. 

Training Needed for New Vocations. But while a series 
of public schools had been developed, free to all, and sup- 
ported by all, they were really suited to prepare only a 
comparative few — those who expected to enter some pro- 



i 3 6 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

fession like law, medicine, teaching, or the university — 
for the work they expected to do. Any one might take 
the courses,^and be benefited by them, but he would be 
spending time on something he might seldom use, while 
there were many other things he should be learning in 
order to be a happy and useful citizen. At the same time, 
an ever-increasing proportion of the population had been 
going into industries for which as careful training is needed 
as for the professions. The decreasing proportion of farmers 
had made it necessary that they, too, should have scien- 
tific training. 

In the last ten years there has been such strong feeling 
on this subject that our free public schools have begun to 
train the farmer and the industrial worker just as they 
have trained the professional man and woman. Since it 
is thus made profitable for them, many who would other- 
wise have stopped at the end of the eighth grade now go 
through the high school and the university. 

The training in their occupation is not the only advan- 
tage they have gained by remaining longer in school. They 
have at the same time the benefit of continual instruction 
in literature, music, and the other fine arts which were 
formerly enjoyed only by those who came for professional 
training. They learn to know good books, good pictures, 
and good music. They learn to think and to be good com- 
pany for themselves. 

Vocational Training for the Voter. There is one occu- 
pation common to all men and to many women, and that 
is the occupation of helping to manage the affairs of the 
community. Special training must be provided for the 
voter. That training must include a study of the origin 



EDUCATION 



37 



of our ideas and our institutions, of our differences in 
religious and political beliefs and of the methods used by 
other nations in dealing with the problems with which we 
have to deal. It must result in a sympathetic understand- 
ing of the differences and similarities of different people. 
Especially here in the United States, where we are all 







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Flushing High School, Borough of Queens, New York City. 



" foreigners " or descendants of " foreigners," we have a 
difficult task in becoming acquainted with the history of 
the races from which our neighbors have come. 

The fact that we come from countries having various 
forms of government makes it especially desirable that we 
study the workings of our own government and of other 
governments. Merely to be able to repeat from memory 



i 3 8 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

the constitution of the United States will not help much. 
We want to learn to think intelligently about our interests 
and the interests of our neighbors and the best way 
to organize with these neighbors to secure our common 
interests. 

Education for Work. On the other hand the fact that a 
person has been going to school for twenty-five years does 
not insure an intelligent understanding of the problems and 
interests of the community. He may have selected subjects 
that were easy rather than subjects that were valuable; 
he may have idled away his time. In order to understand 
and be of value to the community he needs useful work, 
hard work, work with the hands and work with the head; 
work with other people as well as alone. If he learns to 
think without forming the habit of applying his thoughts 
to work which he is doing with his hands, there is little 
probability of his ever acquiring it. " An ounce of action 
is worth a pound of theory." The child who has done 
nothing in school but think steadily for eight hours a day, 
five days in the week, and forty weeks in the year will have 
a hard time when he tries suddenly to acquire the habit 
of industry along lines different from those in which he has 
been thinking. 

Education to Escape Work. As a matter of fact, not 
very many people do expect their children to perform such 
a miracle. The truth is that there are people who want 
their children to go to school to learn to make a living 
with their brains and escape useful toil. " I don't want 
my boy and girl to stay on the farm and slave as their poor 
old father and mother have had to slave. " It is with such 
ideas as this that our boys and girls have gone to school 



EDUCATION 



139 




i 4 o ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

expecting to become doctors, lawyers, teachers, ministers, 
insurance agents or anything else which appears from the 
outside to be clean, easy work but which often proves to 
be far less satisfying than the combination of mental and 
manual labor which they scorned. 

Education for All Ages and All Classes. We are changing 
our views and our methods now. First, we are putting 
industries into our schools, so that our boys and girls may 
get into the habit of doing well and intelligently those things 
which they are going to do all their lives. Second, we are 
taking our schools into the factories where our boys and 
girls are at work, so that they may learn to think while 
they are working, and grow up into free men and women 
who can form their own opinions and use the ballot to good 
purpose. Third, we are trying to bring back into school 
life those who have grown up and are working hard for a 
living. People who have children in school learn with their 
children to a certain extent. This is especially true of 
foreign-born parents who eagerly absorb the knowledge 
which their children are obtaining in the public schools. 
Colleges offer courses by correspondence; professors go 
over the country lecturing just as they do in the univer- 
sities, and so by this extension work carry the university 
all over the state; the people are encouraged to make 
the schoolhouse a neighborhood center and come together 
to talk over common problems and " go to school to one 
another "; universities are giving short courses in farming 
and domestic science for the farmers and their wives and 
daughters during those weeks in the winter when there is 
least to do on the farm. We are outgrowing the idea 
that school is a place to send children for a few years to 



EDUCATION 



141 





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i 4 2 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

study things which do not have much in common with the 
everyday life of working men and women. We are coming 
to believe everbody should be working while he is studying 
and that everybody should go to school all his life — should 
never stop learning. 



QUESTIONS ON EDUCATION 

i. What education do children receive before they start to school? 

2. What institutions educated the young people before the state took 
education into its hands? 

3. Does your state compel people to go to school up to a certain age? 
If so, what is the age? 

4. What were the arguments used against compelling people to go to 
school? What do you think of them? 

5. How do you expect to make your living? Make a list of the occu- 
pations which the members of the class expect to enter. What per cent 
are manual? What per cent mental? 

6. How will the subjects which you are studying prepare you to do your 
work? To enjoy life? To do your duty as a citizen? 

7. How do our public schools reach the grown-up immigrants who do 
not speak the English language? 

8. From what European people are you descended? 

9. To what race did each of these great men and women belong? Are 
there any pupils in your school who belong to the race of any of them? 
Caesar? St. Peter? Rembrandt? 
Columbus? King Solomon? David Lloyd George? 
Dante? Paderewski? Adam Smith? 
Goethe? Jan Kubelik? Sir Horace Plunkett? 
Louis Kossuth? Dvorak? Louis Pasteur? 

Robert Koch? Murillo? Joan of Arc? 

Verdi? Garibaldi? Florence Nightingale? 

Shakespeare? Count Cavour? Madame Curie? 

Tolstoi? Victor Hugo? Cromwell? 

10. If there is no name here of the race to which you belong tell the 
class of some of your great men. 

IX, How many races are represented in your school? 



CHAPTER XIV 

EFFICIENCY 

The Russian officials have recently banished vodka 
from the army. They declared that this step was necessary 
to maintain the efficiency of the soldiers at its highest 
point. Efficiency is the watchword of the hour — the watch- 
word of the business world, of the home, of the school. 
It is the end we seek in our play. There is a certain satis- 
faction in doing or in seeing things done efficiently which 
takes crowds of men to ball games on hot afternoons, which 
makes older children patiently coach younger children, 
which makes children and grownups alike persevere at hard 
tasks or games until they have mastered them. 

Efficiency in the School. There are certain well-known 
examples of efficiency in different lines. These examples 
need not be accepted as final solutions of the problems 
they seek to solve, but they may at least be considered and 
approved as conscientious and more or less successful 
attempts at reducing waste. For instance, almost every- 
body has heard of the schools at Gary, Indiana. Their 
efficiency is described as follows by Mr. Albert Jay Nock 
in the American Magazine for April, 1914: 

A School Made Up of " Foreigners." " Gary, the city 
that the Steel Trust built to order, is almost wholly colo- 
nized by foreigners of all kinds. On an hour's notice the 
Gary police will furnish you an interpreter for any language 

143 



144 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

spoken in the civilized or semicivilized world. And it is 
the children of these foreigners who populate the Gary 
schools. 

" There are several schools in Gary, and all are on the 
same system. The new Froebel school and the Emerson 
school are their best buildings. These have around them 
a very large acreage containing park space (the adult pop- 
ulation of Gary uses the schools as freely as the children), 
gardens of vegetables and flowers, playgrounds lighted at 
night, ball grounds, courts for tennis, squash, handball, 
basketball, etc. In the buildings themselves are well- 
equipped gymnasia, swimming pools and showers. 

" The building accommodates twice as many children as it 
will hold; that is, it has desk-room or actual class-room space 
for only half the daily attendance. This is why the Gary 
system costs no more than any other, in fact rather less. 

All the Plant in Use All the Time. " All the plant (includ- 
ing outdoors) is in use all the time. One set of children 
being in the class-rooms, another is outdoors or in the 
gymnasium or the shops. This plan is merely a very simple 
application of elementary efficiency study. Gary gets every 
cent out of its taxpayers' investment. The Emerson school, 
for instance, takes care of a trifle over two thousand chil- 
dren daily, without crowding/while under our usual system 
it could take care of only one thousand and forty. 

The Work Varied. " The school program is arranged in 
such a way that one-half the pupils have ninety minutes 
of school work in the regular subjects— English, history, 
mathematics, etc.; followed by ninety minutes of work in 
the special subjects — manual training, shop work, science, 
music, gymnasium and playground activities. The other 



EFFICIENCY i 45 

half of the pupils have the same program in reverse order, 
the ninety minutes of special work preceding the ninety 
minutes of regular work. 

" These school run the year round. Children are not 
obliged to attend all year, but they do. The schools are 
open all day, from 8 a.m. to 10 p.m. Children need not 
be there all day, but usually they are. 

" Mr. Wirt, the superintendent, told me that when a 
family moved in from outside and learned that school 
began at 8 a.m. they usually rang him up in great dismay 
to tell him that they could never in the world get their 
boy started so early. 

"' All right, he needn't come till later/ 

"' Well, when shall I send him? ' 

" ' Can you get him ready by half past nine? ' 

" ' Oh yes, easily.' 

"' Very well then, half past nine will do nicely.' 

" Next day the boy comes at half-past nine and next day 
and perhaps the next. But by that time he has found 
out what he missed by not being there earlier, and at eight 
o'clock on the fourth morning he is sitting on the school 
steps waiting for action." 

Why does he do it? 

All Ages in the Same School. " There is no separate high 
school in Gary. Every grade from kindergarten up is in 
one building. Next to a laboratory or some other workshop 
for advanced students you will find a primary room. All 
the doors are open, and as the younger children pass the 
laboratory they stop and look. Curiosity presently takes 
them in, they stand around and watch the older pupils at 
their experiments. Sometimes one may be requisitioned 



i 4 6 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

to help a little — to hold an instrument or fetch something 
that is needed. Children of all ages go frequently every- 
where in the building and look at everything that is to be 
seen. 

" Thus it is that the children at Gary not only teach 
themselves but also largely teach each other by this method 
of natural observation, which is fostered by throwing the 
children all in together. I saw some little girls of ten or 
twelve, for instance, engaged in clay modeling and basket 
weaving. Other little girls of half their age were watching 
them intently, occasionally helping in some small way. 

Only Useful Work Done. " The shops at the Gary schools 
are all practical. A boy learns cabinet making, not as an 
exercise, but because the school needs desks. He learns 
draftsmanship under the immediate incentive of knowing 
that a real job of structural iron work depends on his blue- 
prints. He learns plumbing because the new Froebel 
school is waiting to be piped. He learns printing because 
somebody has sent in a job order and will pay for it when 
it is done. He learns to fire boilers because the school 
dynamos have to be kept running. He studies the prac- 
tical chemistry of combustion because he wants to keep 
his coal bill as low as the man in the other shift. None of 
his work is play work." 

Here is efficiency in education. But boys and girls 
cannot stay in school forever even though they live actively 
as do the Gary children. All the time they are going to 
school, they are looking forward to the time when they will 
not have to be cared for by the community and by their 
parent, but will instead support themselves. Some of you, 
for example, will support yourselves by working to care 



EFFICIENCY 147 

for your own homes and your children; others will go out- 
side the home to work. Whichever it is, you are going to 
meet over and over again this problem of efficiency. 

Suppose you become a home maker. You expect, of 
course, to be an efficient one. Where will you find well- 
known examples of efficient home making? There are prob- 
ably many of them, right in your own community, but no 
one has ever taken the trouble to write them up in the 
magazines as has been done for the Gary schools and the 
Ford automobile plant. 

Efficient Housekeeping. We know of one such home in 
a small city. It is a small house with a pretty garden. 
There is no furnace in it, and no dusty coal is shovelled into 
it, because it is heated from the heating and power station 
downtown. It has and needs no laundry, because the 
housewife is one of a large group of housewives who have 
established a laundry in which they themselves are the 
stockholders, and which a college-trained woman manages 
in a way that suits the most exacting. The kitchen is 
really a well-arranged chemical laboratory where the house- 
wife plans and cooks the simplest and most nourishing food 
for her family. It is so carefully planned that she can stand 
at the range and almost reach the sink, the kitchen shelves, 
the drawers, and the table above them. The rest of the 
house is planned, like the kitchen, for convenience, rather 
than display. There is not an unnecessary piece of furni- 
ture in the house, and no exhibition of silver, glass, china, 
and embroidery. 

Time for Her Family. The result of this careful planning 
is that this house manager is able to give her attention to 
the matters which most affect the welfare of her family. 



148 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

She has time to investigate the sources from which their 
food comes; time to wash and air the ice chest which holds 
the food after it comes into the house; time to boil water 
which is unsafe. She seldom has to spend time caring for 
sick members of the family; she prefers to prevent disease 
by absolute cleanliness. Best of all. she has time to read, 




The Convenient Kitchen. 
Compare its convenience with that of your own. 

Courtesy of the Home Economic Department of the University of Wisconsin. 

to talk with her family about the affairs of the town and the 
country, and to join with other women in organized efforts 
to improve conditions in the community which a single 
family cannot control. 

Choosing an Occupation. Suppose now, that your work 
is to be outside your home. Your first problem will be the 



EFFICIENCY 



149 



choice of an occupation. You have probably noticed that 
many occupations are more necessary to the community 
than others; if you think it over, you will be able to make 




A Kitchenette. 



a list of some which we could easily dispense with, and of 
others which are absolutely indispensable. That is, in some 
occupations you might feel that you were adding little or 
nothing to the welfare of the community, while you could 



i S o ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

put your labor into other tasks and feel that what you are 
producing is worth at least as much as the food and clothes 
and other articles you are consuming. 

John Wilson selected farming as the most honest way 
he could earn a living. He bought a farm with what was 
considered in the neighborhood a very good orchard. It 
had a dozen varieties of apples, besides pears, peaches, 
plums, cherries, and every kind of small fruit possible in 
the climate. He got a good breed of chickens, good breeds 
of cattle, and started out hopefully. 

An Inefficient Marketing System. His apple crop the first 
year was a bumper one. He loaded bushels of them into 
his wagon, took them to town, and tried to sell them. He 
went first to the stores, but was offered such low prices that 
he refused them, and went around peddling his apples from 
house to house. He spent the afternoon at this, when he 
he and his team were badly needed at home. He went 
home at night with half his apples still in the wagon and 
$2.00 in his pocket, determined that he would never try to 
market apples in that town again. 

Instead, he wrote at once to a well-known commission 
firm in Chicago one hundred fifty miles away and offered 
his apples for sale. He could obtain no definite guarantee 
as to prices, because the commission merchant did not 
know the quality of the goods he would receive. John 
shipped fifty barrels, however. Finally he received a check 
in payment which scarcely covered the cost of shipment. 
The explanation given for the low price was that the apples 
had arrived in bad shape and were worth no more. Mr. 
Wilson was so disgusted that he let the rest of the apples 
rot on the ground. 



EFFICIENCY i 5 i 

But he did not miss the lesson. He began to discuss 
with his neighbors the possibility of a way out of the diffi- 
culties. They talked the problem over from every point 
of view. 

" As a matter of fact," admitted one, " you can't blame 
the commission men for not giving us much. I sent a good 
looking barrel of apples to my daughter last year, and it 
took them a week to get there, and they were all mashed up." 

" No, and you can't get housewives to buy what you 
peddle around as long as they can call up any minute and 
have smooth, perfect fruit from California or Virginia 
brought to the door by a reputable grocer." 

" I tell you, the only way we can get them to buy home- 
grown fruit is to show them that our goods are as reliable 
as those which come all the way across the continent." 

They all agreed on that, but the question was how to 
obtain public confidence. They must spray the trees, for 
one thing, so as to grow a superior quality of fruit; they 
must pack it properly, they must grade it as the California 
fruit was graded, so that a person who bought a barrel of 
apples could tell from the top layer the size of the apples 
all the way through. They must then keep in touch with 
market conditions. 

The Farmers Organize and Market Their Apples. Merely 
discussing it, they came to realize that the marketing 
problem was too much for one farmer alone. A number of 
the more progressive ones decided to try it together. They 
agreed in the future to plant certain kinds of apples, to 
spray their trees, to pack and grade their fruit carefully 
according to certain standards agreed upon, to sell their 
goods together, and to adopt a name for their marketing 



152 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

association under which they would mutually guarantee 
the quality of their goods. 

That was ten years ago. The fruit growers' marketing 
association has grown until almost every farmer in the 
county is a member. They have had to hire expert packers, 
and a marketing agent who keeps informed on the demand 
throughout the country. The name of the association has 
become such a guarantee of quality that its products sell 
on a par with those of the east and the west. 

There are many other lines on which farmers have 
organized for the sake of greater efficiency: they have 
learned to build creameries and cheese factories together, 
and to employ their own managers and laborers to run these; 
they have learned to demand certain fixed standards of each 
other in the production, care and quality of milk. They 
have learned to buy goods together; to build warehouses 
for their grain. They have learned, in fact, by employing 
their own men at reasonable rates and by standardizing 
their product, to take a large part of the element of risk 
out of their business, and insure fair prices for what they 
produce. 

The women, too, have learned to organize for greater 
efficiency in their work. They have formed egg marketing 
associations, every member of which packs her eggs as do 
all the rest, guaranteeing that they are not more than so 
many days old, and grading them in size; and together they 
guarantee the quality of the entire product. The receive 
consequently a higher price for their eggs than do those 
who sell eggs by the dozen, regardless of size and age. They 
have even built laundries together, so that their laundry 
work may be done more cheaply and efficiently than in the 
usual inconvenient farmhouse. 



EFFICIENCY 153 

Farmers' organizations for all purposes are being estab- 
lished. The secretary of one well-known association of 
farmers reports that in 191 3 their Minnesota wool growers 
marketed their product to the amount of $19,168.68, while 
the Wisconsin wool growers netted $24,311.98 at a total 
expense of warehousing, grading, packing, insurance, etc., 
of $334.63. The manner in which this is handled is for the 
membership to deliver their wool at certain warehouses 
maintained by the department where it is graded and packed 
and there awaits the eastern buyers. 

" We are just now," the secretary says, " making 
arrangements to establish a direct market between our 
members and the consumers in the city of Chicago for the 
purpose of marketing the potato crop. By the consumers 
I mean the small purchasers as well as large hotels, restau- 
rants, cafes, etc. In order to do this properly we re- 
quire our membership to sort, grade, and pack their 
potatoes in packages convenient for the trade, and as 
far as our arrangements have gone, we feel practically 
certain that we can return to the grower the full value of 
his crop." 

The Cost of Marketing Milk. The dairy farmers who sup- 
pi}" the city of Chicago with milk are receiving less than three 
cents a quart for their product. The Chicago consumers are 
paying eight cents a quart. That means that the consumer 
is paving twice as much for the service of deliver)' as for 
the original service of the farmer. Now it is possible that 
it takes twice as much work to deliver as to produce the 
milk in the first place, but a thoughtful housekeeper made 
a few observations from her window one morning which 
convinced her that the system of delivery was wasteful, 



i 5 4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

and that she was, consequently, paying much more for it 
than she should pay. 

Her milkman brought her a pint of milk at 8 o'clock, 
and then went on down the street to the fourth house from 
hers, where he left a quart of milk. Then he drove to the 
next block, stopped at three houses in the block, and turned 
the corner out of sight. Meantime another milkman 
stopped in front of her house to deliver a quart of milk to 
the flat above her. He also stopped at two or three houses 
in the block and drove on to the next one to repeat the per- 
formance of the first wagon. During the course of the morning 
she saw ten different milkmen stop at houses in her block. 

This housewife began to think. She had a brother in 
the country who was selling milk to Chicago at two cents 
a quart. Could there be a more economical way of delivery 
which would make it possible for him to receive more for 
his milk or for her to pay less? Grocery wagons had the 
same habit of following each other around. When she saw 
her grocer next, she said, " What is the average cost of a 
single delivery of goods to a customer? " 

" About six cents," said he. 

" That means," said she, " that whether you deliver a 
five-dollar or a five-cent order, it costs you about six cents — 
or rather it costs your customers six cents, for they have to 
pay for it somehow or other." 

" Exactly, madam," said he. 

She began to talk the matter over with her friends, and 
to try to think out means for greater efficiency in getting 
products from producer to consumer. She suggested that 
one milkman with one milk wagon could probably deliver to 
five times as many families if he could stop at every house 
on a block and at every block on his way. 



EFFICIENCY 155 

" But," said one, " we should only need one-fifth as many 
milkmen, and that would throw some of them out of work." 

" I have thought of that," was the answer, " and I 
suppose it might temporarily injure some who are in the 
business. But that would adjust itself in time. In the 
first place we are always complaining that there are too 
many in the cities to be supported. We want more farmers 
— we want an economical administration of business which 
must be done in cities so that more people may be released 
to work in the country. In the second place, most of us 
would use more milk if we could get it more cheaply. 
Cheaper distribution would make the price cheaper for us, 
and the production of more milk would require more hands. 
In the third place, we desire shorter working hours. Even- 
improvement which makes it possible to accomplish a given 
amount of work with less energy than before, should make 
possible a shorter working day for all, with more leisure 
for study, music, and recreation of all kinds." 

" But," said another, " are you sure it will work ou* 
that way? Will not many be thrown out of work, and tht 
others work the long hours? Is not one of the greatest 
losses today the waste of the energy of the unemployed? " 

" That is true, too. But unemployment will have to 
be dealt with in the same way as the problem of distri- 
bution — by organization. At present there are many 
employment agencies throughout the country, but they are 
unable to get into touch with the others. A few states have 
already established state employment offices to keep in 
touch with local conditions throughout the state, and there 
has been considerable agitation to establish a national 
employment bureau which can coordinate the work of the 
bureaus in the states." 



156 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

" But what would you suggest to improve the milk 
situation? " 

' Well, I have thought that where farmers are supplying 
a small community, they might all combine, agree to put 
their milk together, insisting on certain standards, and 
themselves employ men to deliver it. That would be 
difficult, however, practically impossible where the farmers 
are scattered over many hundred square miles as they are 
around Chicago. It seems to me that here is a case where 
the consumers will have to take the action. If the con- 
sumers, which is the whole city, could establish a milk 
station, require all the milk shipped into Chicago to go to 
that station, establish certain standards, and itself make 
the delivery, much duplication might be saved." 

Organization for Efficiency in Europe. The people of 
Europe have learned to regard us as a wasteful nation 
because they were forced to learn to save earlier than we 
were. In the first place they are more careful in their homes 
not to waste what they have. Farmers have formed organi- 
zations to lend and borrow money among themselves when 
they need it, without having to pay banks for the service; 
they have formed organizations to market milk and milk 
products, grain, vegetables, fruit, and stock. Consumers, 
on the other hand, have organized to buy goods cheaply and 
efficiently. They have established stores where they pay 
their own manager and clerks and take the profits them- 
selves instead of giving them to a group of stockholders; 
they have established wholesale stores from which their 
retail stores buy goods, and they have even established 
manufacturing establishments from which the wholesale 
organizations buy their goods. The profits of all these 



EFFICIENCY 157 

concerns go to the members of the local associations. In 
England there is one of the greatest business firms in the 
world, called the Cooperative Wholesale Society. This is 
made up of hundreds of retail stores, wholesale distributing 
plants, and manufacturing concerns. 

We have been considered exceedingly wasteful and care- 
less with our natural resources. Starting with a richness 
of resources that was marvelous to early settlers, we have 
frantically killed ofF our wild animals, cut and burned our 
forests, pulled out our fish, and dug up our minerals. 

The Destruction of the Forests. " When the early settlers 
from the Old World landed on the Atlantic coast of North 
America they brought with them traditions of respect for 
the forest created by generations of forest protection at 
home. The country to which they came was covered, 
for the most part, with dense forests. There was so little 
open land that ground had to be cleared for the plow. It 
is true that the forest gave the pioneers shelter and fuel, 
and game for food, but it was often filled with hostile 
Indians, it hemmed them in on every side, and immense 
labor was required to win from it the soil in which to raise 
their necessary crops. Naturally it seemed to them an 
enemy rather than a friend. Their respect for it dwindled 
and disappeared, and its place was taken by hate and fear. 

"The feeling of hostility to the forest which grew up 
among the early settlers continued and increased among 
their descendants long after all reason for it had disappeared. 
But even in the early days farsighted men began to consider 
the safety of the forest. In 1653 the authorities of Charles- 
town, in Massachusetts, forbade the cutting of timber on 
the townlands without permission from the selectmen, and 



158 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

in 1689 the neighboring town of Maiden fixed a penalty 
of five shillings for cutting trees less than one foot in diameter 
for fuel. An ordinance of William Penn, made in 1681, 
required that one acre of land be left covered with trees 
for every five acres cleared. But these measures were not 
well followed up, and the needless destruction of the forest 
went steadily on."* 

Finally the people awoke to their loss. In 1891 Con- 
gress gave the President the power to reserve as government 
land timberlands on the public domain. Many reservations 
have been made under this act, and several of the states 
have followed the example of the nation. More than that, 
the nation and the states are employing professional foresters 
to care for the trees; to cut down where it is feasible, and to 
reforest wherever necessary. The owners of private forests 
are encouraged to cut and replant under the direction of 
trained foresters. 

The experience of the United States is common to most 
new countries. The increasing population has cut and 
slashed lavishly until suddenly brought to a realization 
that its hills are bare and its streams flow uncertain. China 
kept on in her destructive career, but there are more 
encouraging examples in Europe. 

Forestry in Germany. " In the early centuries Prussia was 
a forest land ; but as civilization increased, as wars swept over 
the continent, as cities and their commerce required more 
room, these forests were cut away. More than two hundred 
years ago the effects began to be felt; but a century ago all 
Prussia was alarmed and aroused to just such action as we are 
now about to take, by the discovery that her northern dunes 

* Gifford Pinchot: " A Primer of Forestry, Part II, 1905." 



EFFICIENCY 



i59 




i Co ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

were afoot and were marching slowly, relentlessly over the 
land. Not so slowly, either, for every sea gale swept tons 
of sand across the area that had been the most fertile farm- 
land and it was only the hill masses that traveled slowly. 
These hills overwhelmed isolated farm buildings and even 
whole villages, and blocked the rivers. Hanover, itself, 
far inland, was threatened with destruction by the steril- 
ization of its surrounding fields."* 

At once the state took steps to buy and plant land. 
Not only that, but it encouraged tree planting by lessening 
taxes on planted land, and by paying bounties. It ordered 
big landowners to plant and maintain in trees a certain 
percentage of their acres. 

" The method of cutting varies in the several states. 
In Wiirttemberg each strip of forest is cut in turn, cleared 
absolutely bare, then replanted either with seed or with 
young trees, and left to grow while the next and successive 
strips are being cut. In Baden, on the other hand, it is 
forbidden to clear away any part of the forest. Instead, 
the surplus young trees, chiefly fir, are cut and sent to the 
paper mills to make room for the greater growth of those 
which remain; and the big trees are cut for timber when 
they have attained the age of a hundred or a hundred and 
twenty-five years. Everywhere one sees new growth and 
old; but so much do the big trees overshadow the young 
that the effect is of a forest entirely composed of these 
century-old giants. 

"'Through a wood I followed a little group of men en- 
gaged in getting out timber — four out of some two million 
who earn part of their living every year in the German 
forests. They were cutting trees which had been planted 

* Mathews, John L.: "Handmade Forests,'' Everybody 's Magazine, Aug., 1909. 



EFFICIENCY 161 

when the great Appalachian forest stretched, an unbroken 
barrier, against American's advance; and these wood- 
cutters were the descendants of men who had cut this forest 
in the same way when Columbus was searching for a south- 
west passage. 

"They fell upon a wood giant at its base, and sawed it 
flat off at the ground. They stripped off its bark and 
sawed the top and larger branches into meter sticks for 
firewood. The bare trunk, white, straight as an arrow, 
ninety feet long, thirty inches in diameter, was scaled and 
measured and the records were entered in a book. Upon 
the trunk a number was stenciled, for these Black Forest 
trees are sold, not as chance logs in a million feet of timber, 
but by name, specifically, guaranteed to be of given dimen- 
sions, and valued by tables carefully worked out. 

" No slightest part of that trunk was wasted or allowed 
to injure a neighbor. Its century of growth was counted as 
a century of achievement, of purposeful labor; and the fruit 
was handled with reverent care. It had been planted when 
Washington was president, when. Boone was pioneering in 
Kentucky, when the great pine forests of the Lake region 
were known only to some adventurous Coureur du Bois. 
It was planted not by chance, but skillfully, according to 
the art of woodcraft. In its lifetime almost all the forests 
of America had been swept away. The land on which they 
stood is now in many places desert and worthless; deep 
ravines worn by the rain; sand dunes piled by the wind; 
barrens covered with stumps and with the tumbled-down 
cabins of a careless and nomadic people who stayed only 
long enough to work destruction. In America a few have 
destroyed the forests for private profit; but Baden has 
preserved its own for the common good. 



162 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

" In America the fall of such a tree would have saddened 
me, for I should have known it would not be replaced. But 
here it was only the fulfillment of a lifetime; and it is certain 
that in a hundred years from now, when the young tree 
beside it shall have grown into its place, the great-grandson 
of the forester of today will place his hand upon its tall and 
slender trunk, and will mark it for the inevitable trans- 
formation. Instead of a destructive death, it will emerge 
into a higher usefulness — as a butterfly comes forth from the 
chrysalis. And so orderly, well-planned, and efficient is 
the. system that it is certain as anything in the world can 
be that no fire will sweep the woods, no reckless slaughter 
will destroy them, and that this mountain top will remain 
dedicated, as it has always been, to its best use, the regular 
and orderly production of timber. 

" This forest at Gernsbach is a protective forest. The 
six dollars an acre per year which it returns to the people 
of Baden is but a small part of its value to them. Out 
from the woods and through the villages by which I had 
come to Balton Bronn, on the mountain top, flows a little 
river called the Murg. It is made up of countless brooks 
which flow from the high hills. One of them, a trout-filled 
little stream, ran frequently beside my road, as, on a moonlit 
night, I came down the mountain side. It drops 2,500 
feet from the highlands to join the Murg, and scores of 
other little streams join it, tinkling musically into it along 
the way. It flows in a grassy, fern-bordered bed, through 
banks so covered with verdure that there is scarcely a place 
where the earth is visible. 

" Where it runs through gentler valleys farmers have 
put low dams across, and have diverted its water to the far 
edges of meadows, so that, seeping back through the ground, 



EFFICIENCY 163 

it keeps them green and the meadowgrass growing bounti- 
fully into late autumn. 

" In Reichenthal it turns a big overshot mill wheel which 
saws the logs from the community forest. A little lower 
down, merged in the Murg, it turns the wheel of a paper 
mill, running night and day to make white paper of the 
surplus wood from the forest; and lower still, in Gernsbach, 
moves the wheel of a furniture shop where the men of the 
village make furniture from fine wood of the mountain; 
and then of a printing press, and then of a flour mill, and 
then, below the town, of a big sawmill where they cut 
timber from the lower forests. 

" From its sources to the Rhine it is dotted with the 
homes of those who make the manifold products — dolls, toys, 
woodenware, and the wood alcohol and pyroligenous acid 
which are well known as Black Forest products. This 
brook is the livelihood of the valley, this and the forest 
which preserves and protects it; and though the forest is 
an ancient one, it can be duplicated in time, and shows 
the way in which our ragged hilltops may yet be trans- 
formed by proper care."* 

Need of Forestry in the United States. The demand for 
wood is tremendous. The railroads of the United States are 
said to use about 100,000,000 ties a year, each tie containing 
about 45 feet of wood. If we cut 100 ties to the acre, it would 
take 1,000,000 acres a year for railroad ties alone. Railroads 
are now beginning to meet this need by planting thousands of 
acres with eucalyptus trees for this purpose. It requires 
3,000,000 or 4,000,000 acres of land to furnish telegraph poles 

♦Mathews, John L.: "Handmade Forests," Everybody's Magazine, August, 
1909. 



i6 4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

in the United States. One big Sunday edition of a Chicago 
paper is reported to use 200,000 pounds of paper. This 
would mean several acres of pulp wood. In 1907, accord- 
ing to one authority, we made more than 315,000,000 
lead pencils. This would require 7,300,000 cubic feet of 
cedar. 

In spite of the many uses for wood and its growing 
scarcity, great quantities of it burn up annually in forests 
and in buildings. The worst of it is, that much of this waste 
is avoidable. A California forester calculates that on the 
average 800 forest fires a year occur in California, 66 per 
cent of which are caused by the ignorance, carelessness^ 
or maliciousness of men. The total annual loss of all kinds 
of property by fire in the United States is estimated at 
#225,000,000. That much of this loss is unreasonable is 
shown by the fact that the United States is a heavier loser 
than other countries. The cost of fire protection for Europe 
averages approximately 35 cents per capita, while we pay 
#2.55 per capita. In London there are only 3,843 fires in 
a year as compared with 12,182 in New York. 

Other Wastes of Natural Resources. " Andrew Carnegie, 
who ought to know, gave before the Germans' Conference 
some interesting facts about the waste in American mines. 
He explained that the methods of mining during the period 
from 1820 to 1895 had been so wasteful, that while 4,000,000 
tons of coal were actually mined, some 6,000,000 tons were 
either destined or allowed to remain in the ground beyond 
reach of future use. During the ten years from 1896 to 1906 
as much was produced as during the preceding seventy-five 
years; while more than 3,000,000,000 tons were destroyed or 
left underground. Up to date the actual consumption of coal 



EFFICIENCY 165 

has been over 7,500,000,000 tons; the waste and destruction 
in the neighborhood of 9,000,000,000 tons."* 

" An extravagance still more wasteful than in the mining 
methods has been established by the fuel-testing division 
of the United States Geological Survey in our methods of 
consuming coal. It was found that usually only from 5 
to 7 per cent of the energy of coal is converted into 
actual work. The remaining 93 to 95 per cent is consumed 
in the making of steam and smoke and in overcoming the 
friction and inertia of the engine, shafting, etc. 

" Waste, sheerest waste, also ended the life of numerous 
wells of natural gas in Ohio, Pennsylvania, Indiana, West 
Virginia, and other states. In many places, where it gushed 
through openings in the surface of the earth, it had been 
lighted by the people and burned night and day for years. 

" Hundreds and hundreds of burning wells could be seen 
in the oil districts. Many were carelessly set on fire and 
burned for months and years, without any attempt being 
made to extinguish them. Other wells were purposely 
lighted, to be advertised as remarkable pyrotechnical dis- 
plays which might attract visitors to the gas regions. And 
still more were not put to any use at all, as it seemed to 
the coal barons not advisable to have the price of coal 
cheapened by the introduction of a new fuel, although it 
had superior qualities."* 

What shall we do about all this waste? 
" First of all," says the same author, "we ought to stop 
our insane riot of destruction and wasteful extravagance. 
We must not only learn to economize, but to secure the 
same intelligent supervision, conservation and development 
of all our resources that is maintained by other civilized 

* Rudolf Cronau: " Our Wasteful Xation." 



166 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

countries, and that should be justly expected from a nation 
which has produced so many shrewd financiers, enterprising 
merchants and manufacturers, bright scientists and patri- 
otic statesmen. " This, then, is one of the great problems 
to be solved by the boys and girls, who will be the men and 
women of the next generation. 

Conservation of Human Life. There is, however, an even 
greater problem than that of the conservation of our mineral 
and vegetable resources. That is the problem of conserving 
human life. The Civil War, which lasted over four years, 
cost the United States about 455,000 human lives. That 
seems terrible and yet there is a constant waste much more 
serious though less spectacular than that. Miss Julia 
Lathrop, head of the federal children's bureau, estimates that 
in the ten years from 1900 to 1910 more than 2,500,000 of the 
babies born in this country died before they were one year old. 
3631 men were killed in the mines and quarries of the United 
States last year and 10,000 injured. We are warned con- 
stantly that if we are not careful our birth rate will not 
keep pace with our death rate; but many fail to consider 
that there is no reason for the existence of such an awful 
death rate, especially among children. Just why women 
should bring children into the world and care for them with 
much suffering and self-denial, only to lose them in a few 
years, or to have them grow up in a world which may not 
give them a living wage in exchange for their toil, and which 
does not even guarantee them any employment at all, 
is a question which is beginning to puzzle many. It 
seems strange that in this twentieth century 63 cents of 
every dollar which we give the United States to perform 
services for us are spent for the army and navy and for 



EFFICIENCY 



167 



Out of 1000 Birtte the fo'towing number 

of Children will die in their FWST YEW 

° the various countn* ; formm* the 

CIVILIZED WORLD 



Compiled fromJI^eragesJoHO 

COUNTRY 



Chili 

Austria 

RotlMAHIA 

Hungary 
German Empire 

Jamaica 

Cr VL ON 
Sl>A,N 

UN/TEJ9 STATES 
Italy 

Sri GIUM 

Japan 

Scrvia 

France 

Bulgaria 

Canada 

Great Britain 

ft IftlLRNC) 

5*it2erlano 
Holland 
Finland 
Wr:,rcRN Australia 

DlNMARK 

New Souih V". 

Victoria 

Sweden 

Queensland 

Tasmania 

South Australia 

Norway 

New Zealand 



OEAT 



326 

263 

222 

218 

212 

197 

181 

179 

170 

165 

161 

154 

153 

/S3 

148 

144 

140 

139 

138 
138 
133 
127 
124 

99 

98 

96 

94 

93 

93 

86 

76 



oc/»ths 

30.303 
I298.24S 
200553 

49.583 

154 100 

374.1 S3 

6.414 

23.2SS 
106.643 
280 000 

83970 
28.493 

220.013 
16. 268 

115.378 

23757 

8.200 

I47.66D 
11.441 

19. 209 

10. 877 

756 

8.0 83 

3 74E 

2.299 

11.917 
1.120 
433 
608 
4.231 
2.233 



GRAND TOTAL 3Z43.958 
This Means A Baby Dies 
In The Civilized World 
Every 10 Seconds 

WATCH THE LIGHT FLASH' 



Whtch thclWjhtflash! 

AT EVERY FLASH 

A BABY DIES 

Scvncu-'Aer* /n T'/fe f/tnt/it'a Id/rr/O. 
- •*&> 

One every 10 Seconds. 
360 every Hour. 

8640 every Day 
3053600 every Yea r. 

One Half of this Loss 

is Preventable 



Red Electric Light Flashing 
to Show Infant Death 
Rate and Chart Giving 
Infant Mortality Statis- 
tics. 

Exhibit at Philadelphia Milk 
Show, 1 9 14. 



168 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

military pensions. This leaves 37 cents for encouraging 
education, building the Panama Canal, improving water- 
ways, caring for public health, and keeping up the current 
expenses of administration. 

This is the dark side of the picture. When we remem- 
ber that there was a time when states spent practically 
100 per cent of all their income in preparing for and carry- 
ing on war — when states existed largely for the purpose 
of protecting themselves against other states, it seems that 
we are making progress after all. The care of public 
health and the prevention of avoidable accidents are sub- 
jects of great interest today. Employers, employees and 
insurance companies are seeking safeguards against indus- 
trial accidents and diseases. The governments of states 
and of the nation are sending out bulletins to help in the 
good work. 

For many years the federal government has been 
supplying the farmer with information on the care of animals 
and crops; on the prevention of diseases among cattle, 
hogs, poultry, and plants. In 191 2 the United States 
entered upon a new business. It went into the business 
of saving and caring for children. It established the Chil- 
dren's Bureau at Washington, " to investigate and report 
upon all matters concerning the welfare of children and 
child life," in the same way that the United States has been 
investigating and reporting to the farmers in regard to 
their crops. 

It first took up the study of the question which was most 
pressing, " Why does such a large per cent of babies die? " 
The results of this study are published in pamphlets which 
are distributed over the country for the instruction of 
parents and communities. Two of these, one on the care 



EFFICIENCY 169 

of the mother, and the other on " Infant Care," have been 
especially popular. One of their most interesting reports 
is on " Baby Saving Campaigns "; a report on what Ameri- 
can cities are doing to prevent infant mortality. It tells 
especially of the efforts to supply clean, pure milk to babies. 
Some cities have milk stations where the mothers come to 
get the milk and receive instruction. At some of these 
stations, physicians examine the babies whom the mothers 
bring. From some of them visiting nurses are sent out to 
the homes of the mothers, to teach the care of children. 
New York City and many others have organized " Little 
Mothers' Leagues " among the school girls who have to 
help care for babies and younger children at home. Lessons 
are given them regularly by doctors and nurses; the girls 
bring their babies for demonstration purposes, and take 
back to the real mothers the information they received. 
In Kansas City and Milwaukee the health department 
undertakes to teach baby hygiene through the public schools 
to all girls who care to learn. Leaflets in all languages are 
distributed in the care of children. One issued by the 
Pennsylvania Department of Health, entitled " Save the 
Babies," is reproduced in the Federal Report in all the 
six languages in which it is written— English, Italian, 
German, Polish, Yiddish, and Slovak. Another appears in 
English, French, Yiddish, Slavish, Hungarian and Italian. 

We have touched on the question of efficiency in many 
lines. We have not tried to settle the problems, but only 
to suggest a few of the movements for greater efficiency 
with which you will probably come in contact. Perhaps 
the questions at the end of the chapter will help you to 
think about some of these matters in which you are pretty 
sure to have some part. 



170 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XIV 

i. What is efficiency? 

2. What are the characteristics of the schools at Gary which give them 
their reputation for efficiency? 

3. What are some of the marks of efficiency in the schools in your own 
community? 

4. What thing do you like best about the Gary system? What do you 
not like? 

5. How much does it cost the community to pay for your education for 
one year? Does the community receive anything in return for what it spends 
on you? 

6. What are the efficient elements in the home described in this chapter? 
How could you improve upon this home? 

7. What occupations receive the highest wages from the community? 
What occupations return the greatest value to the community? 

8. If you are in a farm community, find out some of the experiences of 
the farmers in your neighborhood with the marketing problem. What steps 
have been taken in your community or in others with which you are ac- 
quainted, to make marketing more efficient. 

9. If you live in the city, find out what steps your community has taken 
to simplify and reduce the cost of distribution. 

10. What per cent of the farms in your state are operated by their owners? 
(See Appendix, p. 211.) In what state is the per cent of farm tenancy least? 
In what state is it greatest? How do the farms operated in your community 
by their owners compare with the farms operated by tenants? 

11. Do you know of any cases where there is a waste of the natural 
resources of the country? Of human life? 

12. What do you think of the suggestion to enforce personal responsibility 
for fires? (See Appendix, pp. 214, 215 and 216.) 

13. Fill in the answers to the questions in the Fire Prevention Question- 
naire (see Appendix, p. 214) and compare your record on this subject with 
that of your classmates. Compare your records on " Fire Don'ts." (See 
Appendix, p. 215.) 

14. Why do people pay more attention to the loss of life and property 
in sudden catastrophes than they do to the much greater preventable loss 
of life and property in the ordinary course of industry? 

15. In looking for the big things which we usually cannot find to do, we 
often overlook the little ones which would be really helpful to the community, 
such as regard for " fire don'ts," and for simple rules of securing personal 
safety on the streets. (See Appendix, p. 217.) How many of the latter do 
you observe? 



EFFICIENCY 171 

16. How can you help to conserve our natural resources and human 
lives? 

17. How is your state awakening to the need of conservation? What 
effort is it now making? 



QUESTIONS ON EFFICIENCY IN BUSINESS 

1. If farmers organized to sell their goods, would their organization 
increase efficiency? How? Would any one be thrown out of work? 

2. If consumers organized to buy goods, would their organization increase 
efficiency? How? Would any one be thrown out of work? 

3. If we could shorten the amount of time required to do a piece of work, 
would those who worked in that industry receive any benefit from it? 

4. Do you know of any case in which an improvement in the efficiency 
of a business has brought about discharge of workers in that industry? If 
so, was the improvement a good thing for the world? Prove it. 

5. If through more efficient methods the amount of goods produced could 
be increased without an increase in the amount of labor, could we use the 
extra product to advantage? Could you use more bread, more fruit, more 
sugar, more clothes, more furniture, more amusements? 

6. What schemes can you suggest for getting farm products more cheapld 
and directly to the consumer and manufactured products more cheaply and 
directly to the farmer? 

7. A certain successful mercantile establishment in one of our large cities 
pays its employees $5.00 for every workable suggestion for improving the 
business. What do you think of the plan? 



CHAPTER XV 

ORGANIZED EFFORTS FOR A HIGHER CIVILIZATION 

Defects. Almost every one will admit that our organi- 
zations for government, for business and for education have 
not reached the perfection which is possible for them. If 
they had, we should not have people dying of preventable 
diseases; people producing much and living in want; people 
producing nothing and living in luxury; some people work- 
ing twice as many hours a day as they should and other 
people unable to find employment; and people taught to 
make and do things for which the world has no need. 

Movements Toward Reform. Of course, people's ideas as 
to what is wrong and what we should do about it differ 
very greatly, but most of us can find some one who prac- 
tically agrees with our theories; in fact, we can usually 
find large groups of people who have many of the same 
ideas we have. The Consumer's League, the Short Ballot 
Association, the Anti-saloon League, the Purity League, 
the Single Taxers, the Labor Unions, the Industrial Workers 
of the World are all groups of people who are like-minded 
in at least one fundamental respect. The active members 
of all of these see one or more great wrongs which need to 
be made right, and spend their energy working for that 
purpose. 

Political Parties. When like-minded groups attempt by 
putting up candidates to place people who stand for their 

172 



ORGANIZED EFFORTS FOR A HIGHER CIVILIZATION 173 

principles in all the positions for making and carrying out 
the laws, we call them political parties. 

In 191 2 five prominent political parties took part in 
the presidential campaign in the United States. These 
parties — the Democratic, Republican, Progressive, Socialist, 
and Prohibition— made out platforms or statements of their 
principles in regard to city, state, and national affairs. If 
you read these platforms you can see what each group 
thought was the matter and what ought to be done. 

By the time you begin to study this book another cam- 
paign will have passed into history. The platforms of 
the parties can probably be obtained from the local head- 
quarters of each party and the platforms for 191 2 from 
the National Headquarters of the various parties.* When 
you have studied them carefully, and have answered the 
questions at the end of this chapter, perhaps you will be 
able to determine in which group you belong, or whether 
you can work with any of them. 



DISCUSSION OF PARTY PLATFORMS 

Study the platforms for 191 6 as follows: 

1. Read carefully each platform, and make a list of the classes of people 
to which each party appeals for support. Prove each item by showing at 
least one plank in each platform which would please each class to which 
that platform appeals. 

2. Make a list of those planks which you find in all of the platforms. 

3. Make a list of those planks which you find in two platforms. 

4. Which platforms appear to be most alike? How do they differ? 

5. What demands of each party have already been secured? 

6. Point out those items in each platform which really mean nothing — 
which are not definite enough to bind the party to anything. 

*The leading platforms for 191 6 will be published as an appendix in the 
second edition of this Civics. 



i 7 4 ELEMENTARY CIVICS 

7. Point out the items in each platform which you think would make 
for greater efficiency. 

8. Compare the 1916 platform of each party with the 1912 platform of 
each party, item by item. 

9. Notice which items have been adopted by the 191 6 platform of each 
party from the 191 2 platforms of other parties. 

A Common Platform for All. These are the different 
political platforms to one of which most American citizens 
subscribe. In addition is there not some common platform 
to which every American citizen can subscribe as did every 
citizen of ancient Athens? Indeed, if we substitute " our 
country " for the Athenian term " our city," why will not 
that very Athenian oath suit our purpose? 

" We will never bring disgrace to this our city by any 
act of dishonesty or cowardice, nor ever desert our suffer- 
ing comrades in the ranks. We will fight for the ideals and 
sacred things of the city, both alone and with many. We 
will revere and obey the city s laws and do our best to 
sincite a like respect and reverence in those above us wh 
are prone to annul or set them at naught. We will strive 
unceasingly to quicken the public sense of civic duty. 'Thus, 
in all these ways, we will transmit this city not less, but 
greater, better and more beautiful than it was transmitted 
to us." 



APPENDIX 




I7S 



1 7 6 



APPENDIX 



WHY THE CHICAGO VOTER IS DAZED 

e 




HE IS EXPECTED TO CHOOSE 144 PUBLIC OFFICIALS 

(.Reference to p. 41.) 



APPENDIX 177 

PUBLIC OFFICIALS FOR WHOM EACH MALE 
ELECTOR IN CHICAGO MAY VOTE 

(Reference top. 41.) 

National 

President and Vice President (through Presidential electors) 2 

United States Senators 2 

Representatives in Congress, 2 at large, 1 in district 3 7 

State 

Governor 

Lieutenant Governor 

Secretary of State 

Auditor of Public Accounts 

State Treasurer 

Superintendent of Public Instruction 

Attorney General 

Trustees of University of Illinois 

Justice of Supreme Court 

Clerk of Supreme Court 

Clerk of Appellate Court 

Member of State Board of Equalization 

State Senator 

Representatives in General Assembly 3 24 

County 

President of County Board i 

County Commissioners 10 

State's Attorney 

Sheriff 

County Treasurer 

County Clerk and Clerk of County Court 

County Recorder 

Coroner 

County Superintendent of Schools 

County Surveyor 



1 78 APPENDIX 

Members of Board of Assessors 5 

Members of Board of Review 3 

Judges of Superior Court 18 

Judges of Circuit Court 14 

Judge of Probate Court 1 

Judge of County Court 1 

Clerk of Superior Court 1 

Clerk of Circuit Court 1 

Clerk of Criminal Court 1 

Clerk of Probate Court 1 65 

Sanitary District 

Trustees of Sanitary District of Chicago 9 

One Trustee to be designated by Voter as President 1 10 



City 

Mayor 1 

Aldermen 2 

City Clerk 1 

City Treasurer 1 

Chief Justice of Municipal Court 1 

Judges of Municipal Court 30 

Clerk of Municipal Court 1 

Bailiff of.Municipal Court 1 38 

Total 144 



APPENDIX 179 

PUBLIC OFFICIALS FOR WHOM EACH WOMAN 
ELECTOR IN CHICAGO MAY VOTE 

Reference to p. 41.) 

National 
President and Vice President (through presidential electors) 2 2 

State 

Trustees of University of Illinois. . . 

Member of State Board of Equalization 1 

Clerk of Appellate Court ...in 

County 

County Surveyor. ... 1 

Members of Board of Assessors. 



a 



Members of Board of Review 3 9 

Sanitary District 

Trustees of Sanitary District of Chicago. . ... 9 

One Trustee to be designated by Voter as President. . 1 10 

On 

Mayor . 1 

Aldermen 

City Clerk. ........ . 1 

City Treasurer 1 

Chief Justice of Municipal Court 1 

Judges of Municipal Court 30 

Clerk of Municipal Court. 1 

Bailiff of Municipal Court 1 38 

Total 70* 

* Women voters residing within any erf the ten (now thirteen' small park dis- 
tricts or within any of the five (now six) townships lying partly within and partly 
without the City of Chicago may also vote for the elective officials of such park 
district or township. 



i8o 



APPENDIX 



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APPENDIX 181 



[Reprint No. 121 from Public Hearth Reports, pp. 59 to 65]. 

MUNICIPAL ORDINANCES, RULES, AND REGU- 
LATIONS PERTAINING TO PUBLIC HEALTH 

ELYRIA, OHIO 

Milk — Production, Care and Sales 

Section i. No person shall bring into the city of Elyria for sale or shall fell 
or offer for sale any milk or cream without a permit from the board of health. 

Sec. 2. No person shall bring into the city of Elyria for sale or shall sell or 
offer for sale any milk which has been obtained from any milk dealer, dairyman, 
or other person not having a permit issued by the board of health. 

Sec. 3. A fee of 50 cents shall be charged for each permit and the same shall 
be credited to the sanitary fund. 

Sec. 4. Permits shall be renewed annually in January. The applicant must 
state his name, residence, post-office address, and location of his business place 
or places. 

Sec. 5. The applicant must state the number of cows from which milk is 
obtained for sale and the number of quarts (estimated) sold daily. 

Sec. 6. If the applicant buys part or all of his milk supply the names and 
addresses of all persons from whom he obtains milk or cream, and the quantity 
(estimated) shall be stated. 

Sec. 7. If the applicant be a shipper of milk or cream into the city, he shall, 
in addition to the above, state the route of his shipments. 

Sec. 8. Any dairyman, milk dealer, or other person, upon application to the 
health office for a permit to sell or deliver milk, shall file a sworn statement giving 
his name and adress, the number of cows he owns or has charge of, the average 
amount of milk (estimated) which he sells each day, the names, addresses, and 
license numbers of all persons from whom he buys milk, the average amount of 
milk (estimated) which he buys from them each day. 

Sec. 9. The board will not issue any permit unless it is satisfied after inspec- 
tion with the cleanly and sanitary conditions of the stables, cows, wagons, store, 
or place of business of the applicant therefor, and with all the utensils used by 
him from which his milk or cream is obtained; and that the food given the cows 
is pure and wholesome, and that all persons engaged in the care and handling of 
the milk are free from any contagious diseases and that said persons use due 
cleanliness in their work. 



i82 APPENDIX 

Sec. io. All permits must be signed by the applicant, and when received by 
the food inspector shall be placed on file and the name of each applicant shall be 
entered in a book of registration kept for such purpose. As soon as possible within 
60. days after an application is received at the health office for a permit to sell 
milk the sanitary police or food inspector shall visit the dairy or place of business 
of such applicant and make such observation and gather such information as to 
eiable the board to satisfy themselves of the sanitary condition of his dairy. 

Should the applicant live at such distance from the city of Elyria as to make 
it impracticable for the food inspector to visit such dairy premises, such applicant 
shall furnish evidence to the board of the sanitary condition of his dairy. 

Sec. 11. If after issuing a permit to sell milk and cream the board of health 
shall become satisfied that the provisions of the sanitary code are being violated, 
it will at once revoke the permit issued to such person or persons and no new per- 
mit issued until all insanitary conditions have been rectified and all other pro- 
visions of the sanitary code are complied with. 

Anyone doing business under a permit from the board of health who shall 
change the location of such business without notifying the health office of such 
change shall have such permit revoked at the option of the health board or food 
inspector. 

Milk Tickets 

Sec. 12. If dairymen or other persons offering milk for sale use tickets as 
representations of value, these tickets must be in coupon form and must be 
destroyed after once using. 

The Stable and Surroundings 

Sec. 13. The surroundings to the stable must be kept in a sanitary con- 
dition. Cows must not be allowed to stand in manure and filth. 

Sec. 13a. All parts of stable except floors and windows must be painted in 
some light color, or whitewashed at least twice a year. Stables must be kept 
free from dirt, dust, cobwebs, and odor. Manure and urine must be removed 
at least 30 feet from stable and placed where cows cannot get into it. 

Manure must not be thrown out through stable windows. No other animals 
or fowls will be allowed in the cow stables. Floors must not be laid less than 
one foot higher than outside surface level, so that good drainage can be procured. 
Floors must be constructed of asphalt, concrete, brick, with surface flushed with 
cement, or of wood, water-tight. They must be kept in good repair at all times 
and also constructed with a gutter not less than 12 inches wide and 6 inches 
deep : a 4-foot walk back of cows and not less than a 20-inch manger in front. 

Ceiling must be dust-tight and kept free from cobwebs. 



APPENDIX 183 

Light 

At least three square feet of unobstructed window glass must be provided 
per cow and equally distributed; at least 500 cubic feet of space must be provided 
per cow; windows must be left partially open if no other method of ventilation 
is provided for. 

Stable yard must be well drained and kept dean. 

Cows 

Sec. 14. Cows must be kept clean. Manure, litter, etc. must not be allowed 
to become caked and dried on them; they must not be allowed to stand in nor wade 
through filth and manure. 

The bedding must be kept sweet and dean at all limes and of sufficient quan- 
tity to protect the animals from filth. 

Feed and Water 

Sec. 15. Cows must be fed on dean, dry feed, neither decayed, mouldy, dusty, 
distillery waste nor starch waste. If malt is fed, it must not be fed when sour. 

Pure running spring water or ordinary well water, free from contamination, 
pumped into dean tanks must be provided. 

Milkers 

Sec. 16. The milkers must thoroughly wash and wipe their hands and the 
cows' udders before they begin milking. They must not use pails, cans, strainers, 
etc. unless they have been thoroughly washed in hot water and s<>ap or hot water 
and soda and afterwards sterilized with boiling water or steam. Care must la- 
taken that the seamsof the vessels are thoroughly cleaned with a brush. They 
must refrain from milking or handling milk in any way when in themselves or in 
their families there is even a suspicion of any contagious or infectious disease, such 
as smallpox, scarlet fever, diphtheria, typhoid, tuberculosis, or the like. 

Handling the Milk 

Sec. 17. Immediately after milking the milk shall be removed from the stable 
into a milk room, screened from the flies and other insects, aerated and cooled to 
at least 6o° temperature, and put into perfectly clean bottles and cans. Dairy- 
men who use both bottles and cans in delivering milk shall not fill bottles while 
on their delivery route. 

Sec. 17a. The milk house or milk room must not be attached by doorway to 
any other building and must be at least 25 feet from any cesspool or vault; must 



i8 4 APPENDIX 

be provided with a tight door, either concrete or wood, laid so as to provide 
drainage. It must be kept clean at all times and free from any odor. 



Care of Cans and Bottles 

Sec. i 8. All cans or bottles used in the distribution of milk must be thoroughly 
cleaned by either hot water and soap or hot water and soda or other alkalies, 
rinsed and sterilized by boiling water or steam before they are again used as 
receptacles for milk. 

Extreme care must be exercised in cleaning the faucets to cans by use of a 
brush. 

Milk cans must be washed and cleaned immediately after the milk or cream 
is emptied therefrom, and in no case shall the washing be later than 24 hours 
after the receipt of can. 

No person shall use a milk bottle for other than milk purposes. 

Sec. 19. No person shall bring into the city for sale or shall sell or offer for 
sale any milk: — 

(a) Containing less than 1 2 per cent of milk solids. 

(b) Contaning more than 88 per cent of water or fluids. 

(c) Containing less than three per cent of milk fats. 

(d) Having a specific gravity of less than 1.029. 

(e) Containing any dirt, foreign matter or sediment. 

(/) Containing any boracic or salicylic acid, formalin or other foreign chemicals. 

(g) Containing any pathogenic bacteria. 

(h) Containing bacteria of any kind more than 500,000 per cubic centi- 
meter. 

(i) Drawn from any cow having a communicable disease or showing clinical 
symptoms of tuberculosis, or from a herd which contains any diseased cattle, 
or are afflicted with or have been exposed to any communicable disease. 

(j) Drawn from any cow within 15 days before and 12 days after parturition. 

(k) Drawn from any cow that has been fed on garbage, refuse, swill, moist 
distillery waste, or other improper food. 

(/) Having a temperature or which has been kept at a temperature higher than 
55° F. 

(m) Which has existed or has been kept under conditions contrary to the 
provisions of this code. 

(«) No milk shall be kept, sold, or offered for sale drawn from cows suffering 
with sore and inflamed udders and teats or from cows diseased. 

Provided, That the subdivisions (a), (b), (c) and (d) of this section shall not 
apply to milk sold under the name of skimmed milk. 



APPENDIX 185 

Skimmed Milk 

Sec. 20. (a) Xo person shall bring into the city of Klyria for sale or sell or 
offer for sale milk from which the cream has been removed, either in part or in 
whole, unless sold as skimmed milk and unless plainly marked " Skimmed milk." 

[In No person shall bring into the city for sale or sell or offer for sale any so- 
called skimmed milk containing less than 9.3 per cent of milk solids. 

Milk Delivery \V\ 

Sec. 21. (a) Xo one shall use any vehicle for the delivery of milk in the 
city of Elyria which has not painted thereon in legible Roman Utter- and on both 
sides of the vehicle in a conspicuous place the name and location of his dairy and 
the number of his permit. 

(b) Every person using in the sale or distribution of milk a delivery 
or other vehicle shall keep the same at all times in a cleanly condition and free 
from any substance to contaminate or injure the purity of the milk, and from 
May 1 to October 1 shall have and keep over sue h delivery wagon <>r other vehicle 
a covering of canvas or other material so arranged as to thoroughly protect the 
contents thereof from the rays and heat of the sun. 

Original Container 

Sec. 22. No person or milk dealer shall sell, deliver, sell or offer to sell. <>r 
keep for sale in stores milk or cream in quantities less than 1 gallon unless delivered 
and kept in the original package or container. (Exception — Original packages 
of not greater capacity than 1 quart may be broken for sale if the unsold portion 
is kept in the original package, properly dosed.) The compartment where milk 
or cream is kept shall be separated by an impervious water and odor proof par- 
tition from all other compartments of any ice box or refrigerator. Neither milk 
nor cream shall be kept in the same compartment with any other foodstuffs except 
butter and cheese. 

Contagious Diseases 

Sec. 23. (a) Should scarlet fever, smallpox, diphtheria, typhoid fever, tuber- 
culosis, or other dangerous or infectious disease occur in the family of any dairy- 
man or among any of his employees, or in any house in which milk is kept lor sale, 
or in the family or among the employees of any person who ships milk into the 
city of Elyria for sale, such dairyman, such venders, or shippers of milk shall 
immediately notify the health officer of the facts of the case, and the health officer 
shall at once investigate and order the sale of such milk stopped, or sold under such 
regulations as he thinks proper. 



1 86 APPENDIX 

(b) Should dairymen, venders, or shippers of milk fail to notify the health 
officer when contagious diseases exist in their families or in the families of their 
employees, or who, after such information is given the health officer, fail to obey 
his directions, the milk and dairy inspector shall seize and destroy all milk sent 
into the city by such persons, and he shall, when acting in good faith, be held 
harmless in damages therefor, in any suit or demands made. 

(c) In delivering milk to families in which there exists any of the above-named 
contagious or infectious diseases the dairyman shall not enter, neither shall he 
permit any of his milk bottles or vessels to be taken into such houses, but pour 
such milk as each family wishes into vessels furnished by such family, or if bottles 
are left must remain until quarantine has been raised, then sterilized by order of 
sanitary policeman. 

Milk Inspectors 

Sec. 24. The milk or dairy inspector, the health officer, or any person author- 
ized by the board of health, may examine all dairy herds, utensils for handling 
milk, of all dairymen or other persons engaged in selling or shipping for sale milk 
or cream to the city of Elyria. These inspectors shall have power to open any 
can, vessel or pj. jkage containing milk or cream, whether sealed (locked) or other- 
wice, and take samples of the milk or cream for testing or anallys's; and if, upon 
inspection, the milk or cream is found to be filthy, or the can or other containers 
are in an unclean condition, the said inspector may then and there condemn the 
milk or cream as deemed by him to be filthy, and pour the contents of such 
bottles, vessels or packages upon the ground forthwith and he shall, if done in good 
faith, be held harmless in damages therefor, in any suit or demand made. 

Cream 

Sec. 25. No person shall bring into the city of Elyria for sale or shall sell or 
offer for sale any cream unless such cream is produced from milk which must con- 
form to all rules and regulations of this code, relating to milk, nor unless cream 
be kept at or below 50 F., free from foreign substances, and shall not contain more 
than 1,000,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, and shall not contain less than 16 
per cent of milk fat. 

Rules Governing the Inspection of Milk by the Dairy Inspectors in Con- 
nection with Score Card 

Sec. 26. Rale 1. The dairies of all persons shipping milk for sale in Ely- 
ria will be inspected and rated according to the following provisions: 

(a) COWS. Condition and healthfulness: Perfect score, 10. (Two points 
will be deducted if cows are in poor flesh, and 8 points if not tuberculosis tested.) 



APPENDIX 187 

Cleanliness: Perfect score, 5. (All cows clean, 5; good, 4; fair, 3; medium, 
2; poor, 1; bad,o.) 

(6) STABLES. Construction of floors: Perfect score, 5. (If the floor is of 
cement or stone flag in good repair, 5; brick or matched boards in good repair, 4; 
ordinary wooden floor in good repair, 3; one-half wood and one-half cement, 3; 
half wood, cement, or other material and half dirt, 2; any material in poor repair, 
1 ; if no floor, allow o.) 

Cleanliness: Perfect score, 5. (If stables are perfectly clean, including 
windows, walls and ceiling, 5; deduction will be in proportion to dirt, cobwebs, 
etc.) 

Light: Perfect score, 5. (For four square feet per cow, 5 points will be given; 
3 sq. feet per cow, 4; 2 sq. feet per cow, 3; 1 sq. foot per cow, 2; 6 sq. inches per 
cow, 1; less than 6 sq. inches per cow, o.) 

Cubic space per cow: Perfect score, 3. (If 500 cubic feet per cow, 3 points 
will be allowed; less than 500 and over 400 cubic feet per cow, 2; less than 400 
and over 300 cubic feet per cow, 1; less than 300 cubic feet per cow, o will be 
allowed.) 

Ventilation: Perfect score, 4. (If ventil.ition is good, 4 points will be given; 
deductions will be made in proportion to lack of ventilation; if all windows are 
closed and no attempt at ventilation is made, o will be allowed.) 

Removal of Manure: Perfect score, 2. (If manure is hauled to the fields daily, 
2 points will be allowed; removed thirty feet from stable, 1; otherwise, o.) 

Stable yard: Perfect score, 1. (If stable yard is in good condition and well 
drained, 1 point will be allowed; otherwise, o.) 

(c) Water supply for cows: Perfect score, 5. (If cows arc supplied with 
pure running water, 5 points will be allowed; running well water from windmill 
or otherwise, 4; ordinary well water, 3; pond or other muddy water, o.) 

For milk house: Perfect score, 5. (If milk house is supplied with pure, clean, 
running water, 5 points will be allowed; pure well water, 3; otherwise, o.) 

(d) Milk house — construction: Perfect score, 5. (If the floor is of cement or 
tight boards well drained, if the walls and ceiling are sound, and the milk house 
is well lighted and ventilated and not attached by doorway to any other building 
5 points will be given; if the milk house is in a barn or house 2 points will be 
deducted, and deductions will be made in proportion to deficiency in construction, 
light and repair. If there is no milk house, o will be allowed.) 

Equipment: Perfect score, 5. (If hot water is installed for cleaning utensils. 
1 point will be given; proper pails used for no other purpose, 1; proper strainers, 
1 ; aerator, 1 ; soda or washing powder for utensils, 1 ; 1 point will be deducted 
for absence of any.) 

Cleanliness of interior: Perfect score 5. (If the interior is absolutely clean, 
including windows, 5 points will be allowed; good condition, 4; medium, 3; fair, 2; 
poor, 1; bad, o.) 



1 88 ' APPENDIX 

Care and cleanliness of utensils: Perfect score, 5. (If all utensils are thoroughly 
clean and kept on suitable racks, 5 points will be allowed; 2 points will be deducted 
for absence of rack; deductions will be made for rusty utensils or careless washing. 
The lighting and ventilation of the milk house, together with its location in regard 
to other buildings, will be taken into consideration.) 

(e) Milkers and milking — health of attendants: Perfect score, 5. (If attend- 
ants are all in healthy condition; 5 points will be allowed; if any of the attendants 
are sick or a contagious disease exists in the family, o will be allowed.) 

Cleanliness of milking: Perfect score, 10. (If milking is done in special suits 
for milking, with clean, dry hands and with special attention to cleanliness of 
udders and teats before milking, 10 points will be given; all of the above except 
special suits, 7; in addition 4 points will be deducted for unclean teats or udders 
and 3 points for dirty hands; if wet milking will be done, o will be allowed.) 

(/) Handling the milk — prompt cooling: Perfect score, 5. (If milk is poured 
from pail into cool receptacles as soon as milked, 5 points will be given; if poured 
into can and can is put into cold water as soon as filled, 2; otherwise, o.) 

Efficient cooling: Perfect score, 5. (If milk reaches a temperature of 6o° 
before being shipped, 5 points will be given, a temperature of 65 °, 3; a temperature 
of 70 , 1 ; above 70 , o will be allowed.) 

Storing at low temperature: Perfect score, 5. (If milk is stored at a tem- 
perature of 6o°, 5 points will be given; a temperature of 70 , 1; above 70 , o will 
be allowed.) 

Rule 2. All dairies will be scored by the inspector upon a card in the following 
form: 

Owner or lessee of farm 

Town State 

Number of cows 

Quarts of milk produced daily 

Is product sold at wholesale or retail? 

If shipped to dealer give name and adress 

Permit No Date of inspection 191 .... 

Cows: Perfect Score 

Condition (2), health (8) 10 

Cleanliness 5 

Stables: 

Construction of floors 5 

Cleanliness 5 

Light 5 

Ventilation 4 

Cubic space per cow 3 

Removal of manure (2), cleanliness and drainage, stable yard 
(1) , 3 



APPENDIX 189 

Water supply: Perfect Score 

For cows 5 

For milk house 5 

Milk house: 

Construction 5 

Equipment 5 

Cleanliness 5 

Care and cleanliness of utensils 5 

Is house detached? Lighted? Ventilated? 

Milkers and milking: 

Health of attendants 5 

Cleanliness of milking 10 

Handling the milk: 

Prompt cooling 5 

Efficient cooling 5 

Storing at low temperature 5 

Total score 100 

Sanitary conditions are excellent Good Medium 

Poor 

Suggestions by inspector 

Milk or cream from dairies falling below 45 in the rating as indicated above, 
will be excluded from sale in Elyria during 1911-12; milk or cream from dairies 
falling below 50 will be excluded from sale in Elyria during 1913 and thereafter. 

PENALTY 

Sec. 27. Whoever violates any provision of the above resolution, or obstructs 
or interferes with the execution thereof, or willfully or illegally omits to obey any 
provisions of said resolution shall be fined not to exceed Sioo, or imprisonment 
not to exceed 90 days, or both; but no person shall be imprisoned hereunder for 
the first offence, and the prosecution shall always be as and for a first offence, 
unless the affidavit upon which the prosecution is instituted contains the allegation 
that the offense is a second or repeated offense. ' 

Sec. 2S. This resolution to be in force and effect from and after October 1, 
1911. 

(Ordinance adopted July 2S, 191 1.) 



ipo APPENDIX 



[Reprint from Public Health Reports No. 70 (Abridged).] 

MUNICIPAL ORDINANCES, RULES, AND REGU- 
LATIONS PERTAINING TO PUBLIC HYGIENE 

ROANOKE, VA. 

Health Department — Personnel, Powers and Duties 

2. The health department of the city of Roanoke shall be composed of a board 
of health, a health officer, and such assistants and employees as may from time to 
time be authorized by council. 

3. The board of health shall be composed of five members, residents of the 
city of Roanoke, two of whom shall be practicing physicians and three laymen. 

4. The term of office of the members of the board of health shall be five years 
from the date of their appointment. 

8. Members of the board of health shall be subject to removal by the council 
whenever in its opinion any member is negligent in his duties or has failed to per- 
form the duties of the office and any vacancy thus created shall be filled in the 
same manner as other appointments are made to fill vacancies. 

9. The board of health shall, subject to approval or modification by the city 
council, adopt all needful rules and regulations for the proper and successful 
operation of the health department of the city, in the prevention and elimination 
of diseases, the prevention and abatement of nuisances, and for the proper and 
prompt performance of such other duties as said department may be required to 
perform by State law or the ordinances of the city, any time it may deem advis- 
able for the following purposes: 

(a) To prevent the adulteration of all kinds of food and drink and to prevent 
the sale, or exposure for sale, of any kind of meat or vegetable that is unwholesome 
or unfit for food. 

(b) To regulate the bacteriological examination of such matters and things 
as the public health may demand; the inspection and examination of milk; the 
regulation of dairies arid milk dealers and the care and housing of milk cows. 

(c) To prevent the spreading of dangerous epidemics or contagious diseases, 
and to declare that same has become an epidemic and to maintain and enforce 
sufficient quarantine whenever deemed necessary. 

(d) To regulate and control the keeping or slaughtering of all kinds of animals. 

(e) To regulate, control, and prohibit the accumulation of offal and all decay- 
ing vegetable substances. 



APPENDIX i 9I 

(/) To prohibit and remove any offensive matter, or abate any nuisance in any 
public highway, road, street, avenue, alley, or other place, public or private, and 
to cause the removal at the expense of the owner. 

(g) To compel the return of all births and deaths by physicians, midwives, 
nurses, and other persons professionally officiating at such death or birth. 

{h) To regulate and control ihe method of construction, the location, the 
method or manner of emptying or cleaning, and the frequency of cleaning cesspools 
and privies. 

(r) To regulate and control the mode of connection of house draining and 
plumbing, with outside sewers, cesspools or other receptacles. 

(J) To protect the public water supply and prevent the pollution of any stream 
of water or well, the water of which is used for domestic purposes, and to order 
not to be used or closed any well the water of which is polluted or detrimental 
to the public health. 

(k) To regulate the burial and disinterment of human bodies. 

10. The members of the board of health hereby created shall be elected or 
selected at a joint session of council, to be called and held as other joint meetings 
of council are called and held. 

ii. It shall be the duty of the said board immediately after its election and 
qualification to select some suitable and well-equipped person to be named as 
health officer for the city of Roanoke, whose duty it shall be to carry out the 
instruction of the board of health and the enforcement of such health regulations 
as may be adopted by the board and approved by the council, and health ordi- 
nances of the city, and perform all and such other duties as may from time to time 
be imposed upon the said health officer, or by the board of health, and to act as 
secretary of the board, keep all records, books, and papers necessary, and such 
as are required by the board of health or the city council, and to have charge of, 
supervise, and control all employees of the health department, selecting and 
employing all assistants and employees, the council fixing the salaries and wages 
to be paid such assistants and employees as it may from time to time authorize. 

12. The person selected by the board of health as a proper person to fill the 
office of health officer shall be a well-qualified, competent, and efficient physician, 
with good executive ability and acquainted with the latest, most modern sanitary 
methods, well versed in the science of sanitation and bacteriology. The said 
person shall be so selected by the board of health, shall have his name presented 
to council, at the earliest time practical by the board for confirmation, and said 
health officer shall hold office for the term hereinafter mentioned, or until his 
successor shall be appointed and qualified, and shall receive such salary as the 
council may from time to time designate, which shall not be decreased during his 
incumbency, and furnished with such necessary equipments, office fixtures, etc., 
as may be requisite by the council for the performance of the duties of office. 

13. The health officer shall have supervision of, and be responsible for, all 



i 9 2 APPENDIX 

garbage and street cleanings, and the sanitary inspector shall carry out the instruc- 
tions of the health officer. 

14. The health officer shall at all times have care and supervision of the health 
of the public-school buildings, and shall from time to time make such medical 
examination of pupils as himself or the board of health may deem proper, and 
recommend to council from time to time such matters as may require attention 
from the standpoint of health, sanitation, or other matters, not at the time within 
his duties and powers, affecting the public schools. 

15. The term of office of health officer shall be two years or until removed by 
the city council, which shall be upon the recommendation of the board of health, 
which may be done for or without cause. The first term hereunder shall be for 
two years, commencing August 1, 1910, all succeeding terms to be two years, 
beginning August 1st, of the year selected. 

SEATTLE, WASH 
Swimming Pools 

" All pools or tanks shall be thoroughly cleaned at least once each week in 
a manner and by the use of such disinfecting agents or cleansing materials as may 
be required by the commissioner of health, and all such pools or tanks shall be 
emptied and the water therein completely changed at least twice each week. 

The sides and bottoms of all pools or tanks shall be white, so that objects 
may be clearly seen, so far as possible, in all portions of the pool or tank. 

No intoxicated person, or one afflicted with tubercular abscesses, venereal or 
other infectious or contagious diseases, shall use or be permitted to use any swim- 
ming pool or tank. 

All persons before entering any swimming pool or tank shall be required to 
thoroughly cleanse the body through the use of the shower or other similar devices 
maintained and used for such purpose." 

Street Cars 

11 All street cars operated within the city of Seattle shall, within three months 
after this ordinance become a law, be ventilated in a manner approved by the 
commissioner of health. 

At least once each week the interior, platform and hand rails of all street rail- 
way cars shall be cleansed by flushing and scrubbing with a disinfecting fluid 
composed of a solution of bichloride of mercury or other suitable disinfecting 
fluid of such strength as to destroy all germ life. All strap hangers, seats, and 
windows shall also once a week be thoroughly cleansed and disinfected. All 
window boxes must be cleared of all accumulations and must be sprayed with a 
disinfecting fluid or otherwise rendered free from germ life. 



APPENDIX 193 



FARGO, N.D. 

Quarantine 

" The health officer shall remove or cause to be removed any patient affected 
with scarlet fever, diphtheria, smallpox or epidemic cercbro-spinal meningitis to 
(he city quarantine hospital, or shall establish or cause to be established, proper 
quarantine at the dwelling place of the person so affected, provided that house 
quarantine can be carried out without danger to the general public. 

The expenses of hospital quarantine shall be borne by the patient when the 
patient is able to pay them, otherwise the expenses shall be borne by the city. 
When the house is quarantined the members of the family who work out must 
either (a) board and room at another house, or (6) stop work and stay in the house. 

"The health officer may after personal investigation of the premises wherein 
a contagious case or cases exist issue a written permit to wage earners to enter 
and leave the premises during the period of quarantine, provided that he finds 
that such a modification of quarantine will not endanger the public health. 
Neither this nor any other modification of quarantine will be permitted except- 
ing with the written consent of the health officer, and no modification of quaran- 
tine will be allowed in the case of any wage earner who is engaged in the pro- 
duction, sale, or manufacture of wearing apparel, bedding, foodstuffs, cigars, 
cigarettes, or candy. If he is so employed, he shall be required to take a disin- 
fecting bath and put on disinfected clothing and Leave the premises. 

Milkmen must empty milk delivered to infected premises into covered con- 
tainers placed outside the door of such premises. They must not enter such 
premises nor remove milk bottles therefrom until the house has been fumigated 
and the bottles have been sterilized. If bottles are delivered, they must not be 
taken from the house until the case is terminated and the bottles have been 
sterilized. 

Grocerymen and other persons delivering merchandise are forbidden to enter 
such premises or remove packages therefrom. 

Laundrymen are forbidden to enter such premises or to remove any clothing 
therefrom until such articles have first been boiled or otherwise sterilized. 

No one shall remove anything from such premises except by permission of the 
health officer. 

Fumigation 

The fumigation of premises shall be done only by an inspector of the board 
of health, and under the supervision of the health department. The expense of 
fumigation shall be borne by the patient when the patient is able to pay, other- 
wise the expense shall be borne by the city. The health inspector shall make a 



194- APPENDIX 

monthly report to the board of health, stating the number and location of the 
premises fumigated, and shall render an account of all moneys received from this 
source. The health inspector shall receive as compensation for his services 50 
per cent of the receipts from fumigating, and the balance shall be turned over by 
him to the board of health to provide the materials and to pay such other expenses 
as are incurred in doing this work. 

NASHVILLE, TENN. 
Municipal Nurses 

" The board of health is hereby authorized to employ two or more female 
nurses for the prevention of infant mortality at a salary of not less than $80 per 
month nor more than $85 per month." 

ELYRIA, OHIO 

Bakeries 

" No person shall sleep in a bakeshop, and the sleeping places of persons 
employed in bakeshops shall be kept separate from the place where flour or meal 
or food products are handled or stored. 

" No domestic animal shall be permitted in a bakeshop or place where flour 
or meal is stored in connection with a bakeshop. 

" Receptacles for expectoration, of impervious material, cleaned at least once 
in every 24 hours, shall be maintained and kept by the person in charge of every 
bakeshop, and no attendant or other person shall spit on the floor, side walls, or 
on any place in such bakeshop. 

Sec. 1. Smoking, snuffing or chewing tobacco is forbidden in a bakeshop. 
Notice forbidding all persons to use tobacco or to spit on the floor or side walls 
shall be posted in every bakeshop. 

Sec. 16. No person who has tuberculosis or venereal or other communicable 
disease shall work in a bakeshop, and no person in charge of such bakeshop shall 
require, permit or suffer such person to be employed. 

Sec. 18. Whoever violates any provision of the above resolution, etc. shall 
be fined not to exceed $100 or imprisoned for not to exceed 90 days, or both. 

SAGINAW, MICH. 
Meat Inspection 

Sec. 3. (b) All animals intended to be slaughtered within the limits of the 
city of Saginaw shall be inspected while alive and on foot by the city inspector 



APPENDIX i 95 

of foods and measures in pens specially constructed for that purpose which shall 
be well lighted, and all animals so inspected shall be slaughtered within a reason- 
able time thereafter, and no animal shall be slaughtered that is not " passed " by 
the said city inspector of foods and measures. 

(c) Every animal slaughtered shall be inspa ted during the process of slaughter- 
ing by the said city inspu tor ci foods and measures, who shall use such methods 
of inspection as may be approved of or adopted by the common council. 

id) Every portion of any animal slaughtered or intended for food or a food 
product shall be inspected by the city inspector of foods and measures and tagged 
marked, or stamped by him, and a record of said inspection with the name of 
owner, kind of animal, and condition shall be made by said city inspector of foods 
and measures, which record of each inspection shall be entered upon his daily 
report which shall be filed with the city clerk. 

(m) Meat and food products must not be permitted to fall on floors and, in 
event of their having fallen, they must be condemned or soiled portion removed 
or condemned. 

(«) Carcasses shall not be inflated with air from the mouth, and no inflation 
except by mechanical rrieans shall be allowed. Carcasses shall not be dressed 
with skewers, knives, etc. that have been held in the mouth. Spitting on whet- 
stones or steels when sharpening knives is prohibited. 



Milk 

" For the purpose of instructing dairymen, the board of health shall publish 
in April and September of each year, and at such other times as they deem advis- 
able, in the official newspaper of the common council, instructions concerning 
the source from which the milk is obtained, straining, cooling, storage, keeping, 
handling, conveying, temperature and other treatment and condition of milk and 
the sanitary conditions of dairymen, of cows, dairies, ice, stables, wagons, pasture, 
buildings, rooms, utensils, and other apparatus, appliances, and methods used 
in handling milk and cows. 

The city clerk shall within thirty days after publication mail copies of said 
instructions to each and every person holding a license to sell milk in Saginaw 
and to those furnishing milk to such licenses; and shall forthwith make a report 
to the common council of having complied with this provision. 



196 APPENDIX 

INDIANA HOUSING LAW 

Laws of 1913, Ch. 149. 

Sec. 5. The provisions of this act shall be held to be the minimum require- 
ments adopted for the protection of the health and safety of the community. 
Nothing in this act contained shall be construed as prohibiting the local legislative 
body of any city from enacting from time to time supplementary ordinances 
imposing further restrictions. 

Sec. 8. The state board of health shall have power to examine into the 
enforcement of the laws relating to tenement houses 1 in any city. 

Sec. 9. No tenement house hereafter erected shall occupy ... a greater 
percentage of the lot than ... in the case of corner lots, 85%, ... in the case 
of interior lots . . . 65%. 

Sec. 10. No tenement house hereafter erected shall exceed in height one and 
one-half times the width of the widest street upon which it abuts. 

Sec. 1 1 . Behind every tenement house hereafter erected there shall be a yard 
extending across the entire width of the lot and at every point open from the 
ground to the sky unobstructed. ... In the case of interior lots no yard shall 
be less than 25 feet in depth ... in the case of corner lots no yard shall be less 
than 15 feet in depth. 

Sec. 20. In every tenement house hereafter erected every room, including 
water-closet compartments and bath rooms, shall have at least one window 
opening directly upon the street or upon a yard or court of the dimension speci- 
fied in this chapter, etc. 

Sec. 21. In every tenement house hereafter erected the total window area 
in each room, including water-closet compartments and bath rooms, shall be at 
least one-seventh of the superficial floor area of the room. 

Sec. 22. In each apartment there shall be at least one room containing not 
less than one hundred and fifty square feet of floor area, and each other room shall 
contain at least one hundred square feet of floor area. Each room shall be in every 
part not less than nine feet high from the finished floor to the finished ceiling. 

Sec. 33. In every tenement house hereafter erected there shall be in each 
apartment a proper sink with running water. 2 

Sec. 38. Every tenement house hereafter erected which is three or more 
stories in height, exclusive of cellar or basement, unless it is a fireproof tenement 

1 Sec. 2. A " tenement house " is any house . . . which is occupied ... or designed 
to be occupied as the . . . residence of two or more families living independently of each 
other . . . and having a common right in the halls, stairways, yard, cellar, etc. 

2 Sec. 7. The provisions of this act with reference to sewer connection and water 
supply shall be deemed to apply only where connection with a public sewer and with public 
water mains is or becomes accessible. 



APPENDIX 197 

house or unless provided with fireproof outside stairways directly accessible to 
each apartment, shall have fire escapes located at each story, etc. 

Sec. 78. If a room in a tenement house is over crowded, the board of health 
may order the number of persons sleeping or living in said room to be so reduced 
that there shall be not less than four hundred 1 ubii feet of air to each adult, and 
two hundred fifty cubic feet of air to each child under twelve years of age occu- 
pying such room. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

We, the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish 
justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general 
welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain 
and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. 



ARTICLE I 

Sec I. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of 
the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representative. 

Sec. II. 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several states; and the electors in 
each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained the age of 
twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of the state in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives [and direct taxes shall] ! be apportioned among the several 
states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective 
numbers, [which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, 
including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three-fifths of all other persons]. 2 The actual enumeration shall be made 
within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, 
and within every sybsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by 
law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative; [and until such 
enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose 
three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Con- 
necticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, 
one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; 
ueorgia, three]. 2 

1 Modified by Amendment XVI. 
'• The clauses in brackets have been superseded by Amendments XIII and XIV. 



198 APPENDIX 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive 
authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

5. The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker and other officers, 
and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Sec. III. [1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; and each 
senator shall have one vote.] 1 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided, as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats 
of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second 
year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and the third class 
at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second 
year; and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the 
legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained the age of thirty 
years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when 
elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 

4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, 
but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office 
of President of the United States. 

6. The Senate shall- have the sole power to try all impeachments. When 
sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the President 
of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall preside; and no person shall 
be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment, in cases of impeachment, shall not extend further than to 
removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, 
trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted shall, never- 
theless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, 
according to law. 

Sec. IV. 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators 
and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof; 
but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regulations, except 
as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year; and such meeting 
shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a 
different day. 

Sec. V. 1. Each house shall be judge of the elections, returns, and qualifica- 
tions of its own members; and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum 
1 Superseded by Amendment XVII. 



APPENDIX 199 

to do business, but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be 
authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and 
under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members 
for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time 
publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy; 
and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on any question shall, at 
the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent 
of the other, adjourn for mo're than three days, nor to any other place than that 
in which the two houses shall be sitting. 

Sec. VI. 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation 
for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the 
United States. They shall, in all cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the 
peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their 
respective houses, and in going to or returning from the same; and for any speech 
or debate in either house they shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, 
be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States whic h 
shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased, 
during such time; and no person holding any office under the United States 
shall be a member of either house during his continuance in office. 

Sec. VII. 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on 
other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the 
Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of the United 
States; if he approve, he shall sign it; but if not, he shall return it, with his 
objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the 
objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such 
reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, 
together with the objections, to the other house; and if approved by two-thirds 
of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both 
houses shall be determined by yeas and nays; and the names of the persons 
voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journals of each house 
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days 
(Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be 
a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless Congress, by their adjournment, 
prevent its return; in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of adjourn- 



2oo APPENDIX 

ment) shall be presented to the President of the United States, and before the 
same shall take effect shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, 
shall be repassed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Representatives, 
according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 

Sec. VIII. The Congress shall have power — 

i. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises; to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States: but 
all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States: 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States: 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, 
and with the Indian tribes: * 

4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies, throughout the United States: 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the 
standard of weights and measures : 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current 
coin of the United States: 

7. To establish post offices and post roads: 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited 
times, to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings 
and discoveries: 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court: 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, 
and offences against the law of nations: 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules con- 
cerning captures on land and water: 

12. To raise and support armies; but no appropriation of money to that use 
shall be for a longer term than two years: 

13. To provide and maintain a navy: 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces: 

15. To provide for calling forth the .militia to execute the laws of the Union, 
suppress insurrections, and repel invasions: 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for 
governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United 
States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment of the officers, and the 
authority of training the militia, according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress : 

17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such district 
(not exceeding ten miles square) as may by cession of particular states, and the 
acceptance of Congress, become the seat of government of the United States, 
and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the 



APPENDIX 201 

legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, maga- 
zines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings: And, 

1 8. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 
execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution 
in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

Sec. IX. [i. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states, now existing, shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the 
Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight; but a tax or 
duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each 
person.] 1 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless 
when, in cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 

3. No bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed. 

4. No capitation [or other direct tax] 2 shall be laid, unless in proportion to the 
census or enumeration herein before directed t<> be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. Xo pref- 
erence shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the port- of 
one state over those of another; nor shall vessels bound to or from one state be 
obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

6. No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of appro- 
priations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and 
expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 

7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and no person 
holding any oflice of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent of the 
Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, 
from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Sec. X. 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation, 
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; make any 
thing but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of 
attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts; or grant 
any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any imposts or duties 
on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing 
its inspection laws, and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any 
state on imports or exports shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States; 
and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. Xo 
state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops 
or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another 
state or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in 
such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

1 A temporary clause no longer in effect. 

2 Modified by Amendment XVI. 



202 APPENDIX 



ARTICLE II 



Sec. 1. i. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, 
together with a Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may 
direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and repre- 
sentatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress; but no senator 
or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United 
States, shall be appointed an elector. 

3. [Annulled. See Amendments, art. 12.] 

4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day 
on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the same throughout the 
United States. 

5. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States 
at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of 
President; neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have 
attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within 
the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resig- 
nation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall 
devolve on the Vice-President; and the Congress may by law provide for the 
case of removal, death resignation, or inability, both of the President and Vice- 
President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall 
act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation 
which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he 
shall have been elected; and he shall not receive, within that period, any other 
emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following 
oath or affirmation: — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of 
President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, pro- 
tect, and defend the constitution of the United States." 

Sec. II. 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy 
of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the 
actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion in writing, of the 
principal officer in each of the executive departments upon any subject relating 
to the duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant reprieves 
and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeach- 
ment. 



APPENDIX 203 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and he 
shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate shall appoint, 
ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the supreme court, 
and all other officers of the United States whose appointments are not herein 
otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. But the Congress 
may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper 
in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at 
the end of their next session. 

Sec. III. He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as 
he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary* occasions, 
convene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them 
with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he 
shall think proper; he shall receive ambassadors, and other public ministers; he- 
shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed; and shall commission all the 
officers of the United States. 

Sec. IV. The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, 
treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Sec. I. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme 
court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may, from time to time, ordain 
and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold 
their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their 
services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance 
in office. 

Sec. II. 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity 
arising under this constitution, the laws of the Uuited States, and treaties made, 
or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, 
and other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; to 
controversies between two or more states; between a state and citizens of another 
state; between citizens of different states; between citizens of the same state, 
claiming lands under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, 
and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original 



2o 4 APPENDIX 

jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have 
appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under 
such regulations, as the Congress shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; 
and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have been com- 
mitted; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such a place 
or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Sec. III. 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witnesses 
to the same overt act, or confessions in open court. 

2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason; 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except 
"during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Sec. I. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, 
records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Congress may, 
by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings 
shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Sec. II. 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who 
shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the 
executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up to be removed 
to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

3. [No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, 
escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be 
discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the 
party to whom such service or labor may be due.] 1 

Sec. III. 1. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union, 
but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other 
state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts 
of states, without the consent of the legislature of the states concerned, as well 
as of the Congress. 

2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to the United 
States; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice 
any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. 

Sec. IV. The United States shall guarantee to every state of the Union a 

1 Superseded by Amendment XIII. 



APPENDIX 205 

republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion, 
and, on application of the legislature, or of the executive, (when the legislature 
cannot be convened,) against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, 
shall propose amendments to this constitution, or on the application of the legis- 
latures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for proposing 
amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as 
part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three-fourths of the 
several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the 
other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Congress; provided that [no 
amendment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section 
of the first article; and that] 1 no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of 
its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption 
of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this con- 
stitution as under the confederation. 

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States, which shall be made 
in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the 
authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land; and the judges 
in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of 
any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of 
the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the 
United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to 
support this constitution; but no religious test shall ever be required as a quali- 
fication to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for the 
establishment of this constitution between the states so ratifying the same. 
Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the states present, the seven- 
teenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred 
and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America 
the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 

1 Temporary in its nature, 



206 



APPENDIX 



GEORGE WASHINGTON, 

President, and Deputy from Virginia. 



NEW HAMSPHIRE 



John Langdon, 
Nicholas Gilman. 



MASSACHUSETTS 

Nathaniel Gorham, 
Rufus King, 

CONNECTICUT 

Wm. Samuel Johnson, 
Roger Sherman. 

NEW YORK 

Alexander Hamilton. 

NEW JERSEY 

William Livingston, 
David Brearley, 
William Paterson, 
Jonathan Dayton. 

PENNSYLVANIA 

Benjamin Franklin, 
Thomas Mifflin, 
Robert Morris, 
George Clymer, 
Thomas Fitzsimons, 
Jared Ingersoll, 
James Wilson, 
Gouverneur Morris. 



DELAWARE 

George Read, 
Gunning Bedford, Jr., 
John Dickinson, 
Richard Bassett 
Jacob Broom. 

MARYLAND 

James M 'Henry, 

Dan'l of St. Tho. Jenifer, 

Daniel Carroll. 

VIRGINIA 

John Blair, 
James Madison, Jr. 

NORTH CAROLINA 

William Blount, 
Rich. Dobbs Spaight, 
Hugh Williamson. 

SOUTH CAROLINA 

John Rutledge, 
Charles C. Pinckney, 
Charles Pinckney, 
Pierce Butler. 

GEORGIA 

William Few, 
Abraham Baldwin. 

Attest, WILLIAM JACKSON. 

Secretary. 



APPENDIX 207 



AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION 

Art. I. Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, 
or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of 
the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble and to petition the 
government for a redress of grievances. 

Art. II. A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

Art. III. No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner, nor in time of war but in a manner to be prescribed by 
law. 

Art. IV. The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated; 
and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath or affirma- 
tion, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things 
to be seized.; 

Art. V. No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases 
arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual service, in time 
of war or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be 
twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, 
to be witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without 
due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use without 
just compensation. 

Art. VI. In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial by an impartial jury of the state and distric t wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously 
ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; 
to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process 
for obtaining witnesses in his favor; and to have the assistance of counsel for 
his defence. 

Art. VII. In suits of common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved; and no fact, 
tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States 
than according to the rules of the common law. 

Art. VIII. Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed 
nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

Art. IX. The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

Art. X. The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to 
the people. 



208 APPENDIX 

Art. XI. The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign 
state. 

Art. XII. i. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and ote 
by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballot 
the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as 
Vice-President; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as 
President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of 
votes for each; which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to 
the seat of government of the United States, directed to the president of the 
Senate. The president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the- Senate and 
House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be 
counted; the person having the greatest number of votes for President shall, be 
President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
number, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But, in 
choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from 
each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member 
or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall 
be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose 
a President, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the Vice-President shall act as President 
as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. 

2. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President shall be 
the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors 
appointed; and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers 
on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-President; a quorum for the purpose 
shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of 
the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. 

3. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be 
eligible to that of Vice-President of the United States. 

Art. XIII. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punish- 
ment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist 
within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Art. XIV. 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the 
state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law which shall 
abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any 



APPENDIX 209 

state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law 
nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

2. Representatives shall be appointed among the several states according to 
their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each state, 
excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the 
choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, repre- 
sentatives in Congress, the executive or judicial officers of a state, or the members 
of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state 
being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way 
abrfdged except for participation in rebellion or other crime, the basis cf repre- 
sentation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such 
male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years 
of age in such state. 

3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of 
President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the 
United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken an oath as a 
member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any 
state Legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any state, to support the 
Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion 
against the same, or given aid or comtort to the enemies thereof. But Congress 
may, by a vote of two-thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, 
including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in 
suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the 
United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred 
in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the 
loss or emancipation of any slave, but all such debts, obligations, and claims 
shall be held illegal and void. 

5. Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the pro- 
visions of this article. 

Art. XV. 1. The rights of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be 
denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account of race, color, 
or previous condition of servitude. 

2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Art. XVI. The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, 
and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

Art. XVII. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two 
Senators from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each 
Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall have the qualifi- 
cations required for electors ot the most numerous branch of the state 
legislature. 



2IO 



APPENDIX 



When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the Senate, the 
executive authority of the State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies; 
Provided, That the legislature of any state may empower the executive thereof to 
make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as 
the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of 
any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. 

BONDED DEBTS OF STATES 

(Reference to pp. 86 and 90.) 

From Latest Statements Furnished by the State Treasurers or State 

Tax Commissions 



States and Territories. Bonded Debt. States and Territories. Bonded Debt. ! 



Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

District of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

Hawaii 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 



$9,057,000 

910,972 

1,250,500 

28,659,500 
3,765,000 

13,064,100 
826,785 
6,218,275 
* 601,567 
6,218,202 
8,024,000 
2,236,750 
None 
604,548 
None 

None 

10,991,500 

569,000 

12,219,576 

126,253,912 

None 

None 

4,922,991 

7,898,839 
400,000 



Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 
New Jersey. . . . 
New Mexico. . . 

New York 

North Carolina. 
North Dakota . . 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania. . 
Porto Rico .... 
Rhode Island . . 
South Carolina. . 
South Dakota. . , 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



None 
680,000 
968,000 
None 
3,065,500 
186,400,660 
8,652,500 
578,700 
None 
4,367,000 
None 
651,110 
7,980,000 
7,365,000 
5,675,851 
None 
11,781,000 
3,976,200 
3,060,000 
None 
24,339,289 
281,024 
None 
None 



APPENDIX 



211 



ACREAGE OF ALL LAND IN FARMS, CLASSIFIED BY CHARACTER OF TENURE OF OPERATOR: 1910 




ICNAMT^ 



212 APPENDIX 

THE STUDENT'S HEALTH CREED 

Recommended by the Indiana State Board of Health 

I believe my body and good health are sacred. If I am sick it will very prob- 
ably be because I have violated some one or more of nature's laws of health. 

I will study nature's laws of health and will obey them for my own sake. 

I will not suck my fingers, or pick my nose or wipe my nose on my hand or 
sleeve, for these practices are unsanitary and very impolite. 

I will not wet my fingers in my mouth when turning the leaves of books. 

I will not put pencils in my mouth nor wet them with my lips. 

I will not put pins or money in my mouth. 

I will not buy nor use chewing gum nor bay and eat cheap candies. 

I will only use my mouth for eating good plain food, drinking pure water and 
milk, and for saying good and kind words. 

I will always chew my food thoroughly, and never drink whiskey or wine. 

I will strive against the habit of " clearing my throat " because it is nearly 
always unnecessary, and may be disagreeable to others. 

I will not cough or sneeze without turning my face and holding a piece of paper 
or handkerchief before my mouth. Polite people never cough in public if they 
can prevent it. 

I will keep my face, hands and finger nails as clean as possible. 

I will not spit on floors, stairways or sidewalks, and will try not to spit at all; 
ladies and gentlemen do not spit. 

I will wash my mouth every morning on getting up and at night on going to 
bed, and will use a tooth brush if I can get one. 

I will be clean in body, clean in mind and avoid all habits that may give offense 
to others. 

I will get all the fresh air I can and will open wide my bedroom windows 
when I go to bed. 

Name of Student 



APPENDIX 213 

INDIANA NEEDS 

(Reference to p. 96.) 

Sanitary school buildings. 

Open-air schools in every city in the state. 

State-wide medical inspection and health supervision of school children. 

Vocational training in all schools. 

Skilled health officers devoting their entire time to public health. 

Adequate appropriations for public health education. 

A law to compel tuberculin testing of all dairy cattle. 

A just Workman's Compensation Law. 

Education and co-operation in fire prevention. 

A public library in every community. 

A study of occupational diseases. 

Hospitals for the care and prevention of tuberculosis. 

Better methods of sewage disposal. 

Pasteurization of public milk supplies. 

Homes, not mere housing. 

"^Safety First," safety at least. 

Prevention rather than cure. 

— Children's Welfare Exhibit, Indianapolis. 

ENFORCE PERSONAL RESPONSIBILITY 

Architect Steinkamp Urges this Before the National Association of 
Building Managers 

At the 1913 convention of the National Association of building managers, 
held at Cincinnati, Joseph G. Steinkamp, a Cincinnati architect, read a paper on 
" Building Codes." After showing the importance of building codes in enforcing 
proper construction, for the prevention of accident and the reduction of the fire 
hazard, Mr. Steinkamp raised the question of enforcement of these codes and 
punishment of violations. He made an argument for the enforcement of a greater 
degree of personal responsibility for fires, which is conceded to be an important 
factor in the reduction of the fire waste. Along this line he said : 

" In connection with this, one peculiar feature comes up before my mind, and 
that is the question, ' Why is it that the man who has a fire is not held liable and 
responsible for the fire,' unless he can prove satisfactorily to the courts that the 
fire was an accident? All fires are not accidents. Why is there this distinction 



214 



APPENDIX 



made in the case of fire? You might accidentally leave your coal hole in the 
sidewalk open. Surely you would not do it intentionally. Still, if some one fell 
into the coal hole he would hold you liable for damages. You might be a very 
careful automobile driver. You might accidentally strike some one; that it was 
purely an accident and that you did not intentionally strike the men is evident. 
However, it might require a great deal of argument and explanation to convince the 
judge that you are not criminally liable. So you might go through the different 
phases of various laws. But when do you find a suit in equity or a criminal prose- 
cution because a man had a fire and thereby endangered life and limb or damaged 
his neighbor's property? It appears to me that this phase of the question, 
especially with reference to the fire loss, rather conclusively answers the question 
of Mr. Arthur McFarlane, writing in Collier's, ' Why is it that our fire losses in 
the United States are from eight to thirteen times as great as they are in any of 
the countries of Europe, the greatest difference being in the countries,' according 
to his statement/ where they build entirely of wood, as in Norway and Sweden? ' 
Now, the point that I am trying to make is: that if the penalty for violations, 
shown by adverse results, is sufficiently severe, there will be no violations of 
the law." 

Slip No. 167. Committee on Publicity and Education, Chicago, 111. 



FIRE PREVENTION QUESTIONNAIRE 

NAME 

STREET AND NUMBER 

Do you use matches that must be struck on the box? 

Are floors under stoves protected, and how? 

Are walls, ceilings and partitions protected from overheating of stoves or fur- 
nace? 

Do you use metal ash cans? 

Of what material is the house? Roof? 

Is basement or foundation enclosed? 

Are chimneys built on the ground or on brackets? 

Are chimneys in good repair? 

How did you learn? 

Do stovepipes pass through attic, closets or unused rooms? 

Do stovepipes pass through partition without metal protectors? 

Do you keep gasoline in approved safety cans? 

Do you use stoves or furnace, and what kind? 

Do you use kerosene to start fires? 



APPENDIX 21 

Have you any fire extinguishers? 

Are you familiar with the location of the fire alarm box nearest your home? .... 



Where is it? 

Do you know how to turn in an alarm? 

Do you know the telephone number of the fire department? 

Name any fire hazards that exist in or about your home 

If you wish for more information on fire prevention write to State Fire Marshal, 
59 State House, Indianapolis, Indiana. 

Indiana State Fire Marshal Department- 



FIRE DONT'S 

NEVER neglect to have all flues cleaned, examined and repaired at least once 
each year. 

NEVER pass stove pipes through ceilings, roofs or wooden partitions. 

NEVER permit rubbish to accumulate in basements, workshops or anywhere 
about the premises. 

NEVER keep ashes in wooden boxes or deposit them against wooden buildings 
or partitions. Keep ashes in closed metal receptacles. 

NEVER use any other than safety matches. Never leave them accessible 
to children. Never leave a match until you know that it is out. Keep matches 
in closed metal receptacles. 

NEVER fail to place metal protection under all stoves and protect woodwork 
where stoves or furnaces are close to walls. 

NEVER keep gasoline except in closed safety containers. Never use it at 
night or near open fires. Never store quantitites of ten gallons or more except 
in underground tanks. 

NEVER use gasoline and kerosene stoves except with the greatest care. 

NEVER use kerosene to start a fire. 

NEVER use glass bowls for kerosene lamps. 

NEVER connect gas stoves, heaters or hot plates with rubber hose. 

NEVER hang drapery or cloth of any kind near a fire. 

NEVER change your electric wiring without consulting a competent elec- 
trician. 

Write to the State Fire Marshal for information on special hazards, such as 
storing of gasoline and explosives and construction of moving picture shows. 

Indiana State Fire Marshal Department. 



216 APPENDIX 



FIRES DUE TO CARELESSNESS 

The greater part of the annual fire waste in the United States, amounting to 
nearly $250,000,000 a year, is due to carelessness. Much of this is personal, for 
which property owners are directly responsible, and much is municipal, through 
the toleration by the authorities of dangerously inflammable construction, laxity 
in the enforcement of building ordinances and the regulation of explosives and 
inflammables, failure to insist upon rubbish being cleaned up, etc. The average 
citizen should have impressed upon him his personal responsibility for his share 
of the preventable fire waste of the country, which is draining the national wealth. 
Every man can at least see that paper, old boxes and rubbish are not allowed to 
accumulate in dangerous places or out-of-the-way corners, and can keep an eye 
on his lighting and heating appliances. If these alone are attended to properly 
nearly half the fires could be prevented. In foreign countries the owner of 
property is made responsible for fires originating on his premises and can be held 
for damages done the property of his neighbors. American independence may 
not yet be ready for such a degree of regulation, but its necessity could be avoided 
if each citizen would feel his personal responsibility without waiting for a law 
to enforce it. 

One means of educating people in fire prevention. This is taken from the 
Indiana Fire Marshal's campaign literature. 

Slip No. 20, Committee on Publication and Education, Chicago, 111. 



FIRE LOSSES HERE AND IN GERMANY 

An explanation of the fact that fire losses in the United States are about ten 
times what they are in Germany, can be found in the much greater responsibility 
for fires fixed upon tenants, builders and owners of property abroad. An Ameri- 
can gentleman, temporarily living in Berlin, was awakened by smoke and found 
that a fire originating in a room over him was eating its way through the ceiling 
of his dining room. The blaze was extinguished with chemical apparatus without 
any water damage and without needless destruction of walls and furniture. Mean- 
time a careful investigation was made by officials, and the next morning the man 
who turned in the alarm was sent for and taken before a fire marshal with inquis- 
torial powers. The examination of all involved showed that the fire started in 
a hot coal which had dropped from a laundry stove in the attic and rolled upon 
an unprotected wooden floor. The tenant proved that the stove was an appoint- 
ment of the building, provided by the landlord, and that it was neither his duty 
nor his privilege to change it. The landlord proved that he had recently pur- 
chased the building under the usual guarantee that all laws and ordinances had 



APPENDIX 217 

been complied with in construction and appointment, that this stove had not 
been changed, and that his attention had not been called to any condition involv- 
ing a fire risk. The builder from whom the owner purchased was then called 
and had to admit that he was responsible for the setting of the stove as the police 
had found it, and that he had violated the law in neglecting to provide a suitable 
metallic hearth of the required kind and dimensions between it and the floor. 
This responsibility was brought home to him by the assessment against him of the 
damage to the furniture and property of the tenants, together with the estimated 
cost to the city of responding to the alarm and extinguishing the fire, rounded out 
by an exemplary fine of 500 marks as a reminder that German laws are intended 
to be observed. The builder was not required to pay for the damage to the build- 
ing, it being held that while the owner had not committed the violation of law 
which caused the fire, he had been neglectful in not discovering and correcting 
it, and for that reason should pay for his own repairs. He was informed that 
only the fact that he had owned the building for a short time saved him from a 
fine in addition. Such laws and such enforcements explain the per capita fire 
loss of 30 cents in Berlin and $3 in Chicago. American " freedom " is not yet 
ready for such restrictions, but it pays for its independence in a fire waste of a 
quarter of a million dollars a year, to say nothing of the loss of life, and the high 
taxes made necessary by the existence of such conditions. If the person respon- 
sible for fire in this country were made to defray the cost of extinguishing the blaze, 
the criminal carelessness which now exists would be greatly reduced, as would the 
taxes necessary for the support of the fire departments. 

•—Slip No. 58. Committee on Publicity and Education, Chicago, 111. 



PERSONAL SAFETY ON THE STREETS 

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 

1 . What should you do before crossing a street? 

Ans. I should stop and look both ways, and when it is safe, cross the street quickly. 

2. Where is the proper place for you or anyone to cross the street? 
Ans. At the crossings where it is less dangerous. 

3. What should you do, if standing in the middle of the street, you should see 
automobiles or other vehicles coming in both directions? 

Ans. Stand perfectly still until they have passed by. 

4. Should you help young children and old ladies to cross the street and why? 
Ans. Yes, because it is the manly thing to do. 

5. What danger is there in stealing a ride on an automobile or other vehicle? 
Ans. There is danger of being injured cither by falling ojf or being run over 

when I jump ojf. 



218 APPENDIX 

6. In case a child or anyone is injured by an automobile, or other vehicle, 
what is the first thing to do? 

Ans. Call help as quickly as possible. 

7. What should you do if you see an automobile unattended standing on the 
street? 

Ans. I should not molest it in any way. 

8. Why should you select side streets not frequented by automobiles and 
other vehicles on which to play? 

Ans. Because there is less danger of being injured on them. 

9. If, when playing on the street, you should see an automobile or other vehicles 
approaching, what ought you to do? 

Ans. I should get to a place of safety as quickly as possible. 

10. When you are playing in the street, what should you always keep in mind? 
Ans. That I have chosen a very dangerous place in which to play, and that I 

must be on the constant lookout for automobiles and other vehicles. 

11. Why should you not play in the streets frequently used by automobilists? 
Ans. Because it is too dangerous. 



MATERIAL FOR THE STUDY OF GOVERNMENT 

i, Map of State with counties. 

2. State Constitution. 

3. City Charter. " 

4. Ordinances in regard to fire. 

5. Police ordinances. 

6. Copies of legal papers. (Deeds, mortgages, etc., land plats, etc.) 

7. Civil Service test papers showing questions asked. 

8. Building ordinances. 

9. Bulletins in regard to forests, water supply, reservations (State, U. S.), 
child labor, public roads, transportation, plant industry. 

10. Copies of ballots — City — State — National elections. 

11. Map of city showing precincts, wards. 

12. Legal notices (collection of). 

13. President's messages to Congress. 

14. Governor's proclamations — Thanksgiving, Arbor Day, etc. 

15. Reports of State Superintendent of Education. 

16. Reports of the U. S. Commissioner of Education. 

17. Compulsory education laws of the State. 

18. Reports of State Geologists. 

19. Factory Inspection Reports. 



APPENDIX 



219 



20. Land office map of the United States. (Published by U. S. Lmd I 
price $1.00.) 

21. History and Organization of Life Saving Service. 

22. Bulletins from U. S. Department of Agriculture concerning Economic 
Value of Birds. Work of the Government in their protection McLean Bill;. 



REFERENCES FOR AID IN THE STUDY OF CIVICS 

CHARITABLE AXD PENAL INSTITUTIONS 

Henderson, C. R. Modern Methods of Charity. 

Henderson, C. R. Dependent, Defective, and Delinquent CI.. 

Barrv, Richard. New Hope for the Convict. Century Magazine. February 

March. 1914. 
Rus, Jacob A. Children of the Poor. 
Rus, Jacob A. How the Other Half Lives. 
Davenport-Hill, Florence. Children of the State. 

CITY 

Wilcox, D. F. Study of City Government. 
Goodnow. City Government in the United States. 
Chandler, F. \Y. Municipal Architecture in Boston. 
Wilcox, D. F. Municipal Franchises. 

Dawson, W. H. Municipal Life and Government in Germany. 
Howe, F. C. Governing Cities by Experts. 
Willard, C. D. City Government for Young People. 
McAdoo, W. Guarding a Great City. 
Marsh, B. C. An Introductiont to City Tlanning. 
McGregor, F. H. ' City Government by Commission. 
Howe, F. C. European Cities at Work. 
Addam:s. Jane. The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets. 
Jewett, Frances Gulick. Town and City. 
Xida, W. L. City, State, and Nation. 
Bruere, Henry. The New City Government. 
Beard, C. F. American City Government. 

Arnovici, Carol, Dr. Knowing One's Community. Bureau of Social Re- 
search, Rhode Island, American Unitarian Association. 
Nolen, J. Replanning Small Cities. 
Wilcox, D. F. Great Cities in America. 



220 APPENDIX 

Hotchkiss, Caroline W. Representative Cilbs of the United States. 

Reports of the National Municipal League. 121 S. Broad St., Philadelphia, Pa. 

Rns, Jacob A. Children of the Tenements. 

Publications of the Russell Sage Foundation. The Pittsburg Survey. 

Munroe, W. B. The Initiative, Referendum, and Recall. (National Municipal 

League Series.) 
Fitch, J. A. The Steel Workers. 
Publications of the American Civic Association, Washington, D. C, include 

papers on Billboards, Smoke Nuisance, City Planning, Parks, etc. 
Bryce, James. The American Commonwealth. 
Ely. Taxation in American States and Cities. 
For Articles on Civil Service Reform. United States Civil Service Commission 

Fifteenth Annual Report, 

CIVICS. TEXT BOOKS 

Dunn. Community and Citizen. 
Nida. City, State, and Nation. 
Hart. Actual Government. 
Forman. Advanced Civics. 
Beard. American City Government. 
Guitteau. Preparing for Citizenship. 

CONSERVATION 

Swain, George Fellman. Conservation of Water Storage. Yale University 
Press. 

Hornaday. Our Vanishing Wild Life. 

Gulick. The Efficient Life. 

Cronau, Rudolph. Our Wasteful Nation. 

Price, Overton W. The Land We Live In. 

Lane, Franklin K. The Nation's Undeveloped Resources. National Geo- 
graphic Magazine. February, 19 14. 

Chamberlin, Allen. Scenery as a National Asset. The Outlook, Vol. 95. 
May 28th, 1910. Pp. 157-169. 

Allen, William H. A National Fund for Efficient Democracy. Atlantic 
Monthly, 1908. 

Fanning, C. E. Conservation of Natural Resources. 

Powell, Baden. Scouting for Boys. 

Circulars from Department of Agriculture and Department of Forestry. Wash- 
ington, D. C: 
Forestry and Lumber Supply Circular No. 25, published, 1903. Reprinted, 
1909. 



APPENDIX 221 

Forest Preservation and National Prosperity Circular No. 35. 

Timber Supply of the United States. R. S. Kellogg. (1909.) Circular 
No. 166. 

Some Common Birds and their Relation to Agriculture. Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 54. 

Division of Publication. Circular No. 8. 

Forest Service. Circular No. 120. 

The Relation of Forest to Stream Flow. (Reprint of year book from De- 
partment of Agriculture for 1903.) 

Boys' and Girls' Agricultural Clubs. Farmers' Bulletin, No. 385. 

Arbor Day. Forest Service Circular No. 96. 

Forestry and the Public Schools. Forest Service Circular No. 130. 

The Status of Forestry in the United States. Forest Service Circular No. 167. 

Forest Planting and Farm Management. Farmers' Bulletin No. 228. 

Forest in Nature's Study. Farmers' Bulletin No. 468. 

The Drain upon the Forests. Circular No. 129. 

Forest Nurseries for Schools. Farmers' Bulletin No. 423. 

A Primer of Forestry. No. 137 and No. 358. 

What Forestry has Done. Circular No. 140. 

Tree Planting in Rural School Grounds. Farmers' Bulletin No. 134. 

Wood Preservation in the United States. No. 78. 

Our Vanishing Shore Birds. Bureau of Biological Survey. No. 79. 

Fashion's Cruelty and Bird Protection, by J. A. Allen, Curator of Ornithology, 

Museum of Natural History (Leaflet No. 3). (Leaflets printed by the 

American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals.) John P. 

Haines, Madison Ave. and 26th St., N. Y. 

T. Gilbert Pearson. The Robin. National Association of Audubon Society. 

Educational Leaflet No. 46. 
National Child Labor Committee. 105 East 2 2d St., New York. 

Child Labor in Home Industries. No. 134. 

Conservation of the Human Assets of the Nation. By Felix Adler. No. 125. 

Child Labor. No. 184. 

Night Work and Day Sleep. No. 149. 

Child Labor a Menace to Civilization, By Fellx Adler. No. 156. 



EDUCATION 

Perry, C. C. The Wider Use of the School Plant. 
Dexter, E. G. History of Education in the United States. 
Morrison. Juvenile Offenders. 
Allen ; William H. Woman's Part in Government. 



222 APPENDIX 

U. S. Bureau of Education bulletins. Each bulletin contains list. Among them 
are: 

19 1 3. No. 24. Kerschensteiner, George. Comparison of public educa- 
tion in Germany and in the United States. 

1914. No. 8. R. W. Stimson. The Massachusetts Home-project Plan cf 
Vocational Agricultural Education. 

1914. No. 14. Vocational guidance. 

1914. Nos. 35, 36, 37, and 38. B. R. Andrews. Education for the Home. 

191 5. No. 4. W. H. Heck. The Health of School Children. 

1915. No. 17. Civic Education in Elementary Schools as Illustrated in 

Indianapolis. 
191 5. No. 23. The Teaching of Community Civics. 
1915. No. 45. Martin Hegland. The Danish People's High School. 
Kerschensteiner, Georg. Three Lectures on Vocational Training. De- 
livered in America under the Auspices of the National Society for the Pro- 
motion of Industrial Education. Published by the Commercial Club of 
Chicago, 191 1. 
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, N. Y. Bulletins 

FIRE 

Moffat, Cleveland. The Fireman in Careers of Danger and Daring. 
Fitzpatrick, F. W. Article on Fire. McClure's Magazine, November, 1908. 
Chief Causes of Fire. American City. July, 19 14. 

Fire and Fire Losses. American School of Correspondence, Chicago, 111. Tests 
like the following sent out by this school are of value to teachers of civics: 

1. To what may we attribute the present scarcity of lumber? Name some 

results of deforestation. 

2. Name some countries having greater loss per capita than the United States; 

some having less. 

3. Compare urban and rural fire losses. 

4. What is our fire loss per capita? 

5. Why are fires more common here than in Europe? 

6. Compare average fire loss in European and American cities. 

GARDENS 

International Children's Farm School League, St. James Building, New York City. 
Report of the Children's School Farm. Mrs. Henry Parsons, DeWitt Clinton 

Park, New York City. 
Report on Philadelphia School Gardens. Miss Stella Nathan, Supervisor, 

Board of Education, Philadelphia. 



APPENDIX 223 

School Gardens. Bulletin No. 60, Washington, D. C. 

Report of the Home Garden Association. Miss Louise Klein Miller, Board 

of Education, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Report of Boys' Gardens. National Cash Register Company, Dayton, Ohio. 
Farmers' Bulletin. A German Common School with a Garden. United States 

Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C. 
The School Garden. Farmers' Bulletin No. 218. Washington, D. C. 
How to Make School Gardens. H. D. Hemenway, Director of Hartford School 

of Horticulture. Published by Thompson, Brown & Co. 
Report of Handicraft School of Hartford. Hartford, Conn. 

GOVERNMENT PUBLICATIONS 

(Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office. Washington, D. C) 

Panama Canal and the Canal Zone. Price List No. 61. 

Health, Disease, and Sanitation. Price List No. 51. 

Birds and Wild Animals. Price List No. 39. 

Roads. Price List No. 45. 

United States Public Documents Relating to Plants. Price List No. 44. 

Forestry in the United States of America. Price List No. 43. 

Transportation. Price List No. 25. 

Congressional Record. 

HEALTH 

Hutchinson, Woods. Handbook of Health. 

Godfrey. The Health of the City. 

Krohn. Graded Lessons in Hygiene. 

Allen, W. H. Civics and Health. 

Conn. Physiology and Hygiene. 

Spargo, J. The Common Sense of the Milk Question. 

Soper, G. Modern Methods of Street Cleaning. 

Cornell, W. S. Health and the Medical Inspection of School Children. 

IMMIGRATION 

Civics for Foreigners. D. C. Heath & Company. 
South worth. Builders of Our Country. 

Antin, Mary, The Promised Land. Houghton, Mifflin & Company. (191 2.) 
Antin, Mary, They Who Knock at Our Gates. American Magazine, March, 
1914, 



224 APPENDIX 

For points on labor conditions, population, consult Census Bulletins and reports 
issued by Department of Commerce and Labor, Washington, D. C. 

Gulliver, Lucile, The Friendship of Nations. Ginn & Company. 

Hall, Prescott F. Immigration. (1906.) 

McLaughlin, Dr. Allan, of U. S. Marine Hospital Service. Series of articles 
on the immigrant. Popular Science Monthly, 1903, 1905. 

Baxter, Sylvester. A Civic Reader for New Americans. 

Steiner, Edward A. The Immigrant Tide — Its Ebb and Flow. 

Steiner, Edward A. On the Trail of the Immigrant. 

Reports of Immigration Bureau, Washington, D. C. 

POLICE 

Coe, Fanny E. Heroes of Everyday Life. 
Tappan, Eva March. American Hero Stories. 

Roosevelt, Theodore. The Policeman, from the Roll of Honor of the New 
York Police, Century Magazine, October, 1897. 



INDEX 



Accidents, industrial, 93, 124, 125 

Accounts, city, 48; private, public, 48; publishing of, 48 
Administrative expenses, 166 
Administrative officers of State, 79 

Agriculture, Department of, 100; Bureau of Animal Industry, 105, 107; experi- 
mental stations, 114 
Alberta, taxes in, 44 
American Confederation, 115 
Anti-Saloon League, 172 
Anti-Trust Law, 112 

Appropriation, continuing, 82; state, 81, 8a 
Army, 100, 115 
Athens, citizen's oath, 174 
Attorney General, 100 
Australia, 19, 99, 103 

Ballot, agitation for, 12-15; as an expression of ideas, 14; early restrictions, 14; 

long ballot solution, 90; short, 89, 90; Short Ballot League, 87 
Battle-ship, building a, 37 
Beauty, city planning an aid to, 72, 73; destruction to, 67, 68; of German 

cities, 68-71; ordinances as aids to, 74; school creed, 75 
Boston, a day in, 22-24; 28 
British Columbia, taxes in, 44 
Budget, city, 47, 54, 180; English, 82, 101; exhibit of Cincinnati, 49-53; exhibit 

of New York, 49; New York city, 180; state, 82; value of 50, 53 
Bulletins. United States, 168 
Bureau, Children's, 168 
Business Street, 66, 67 

Cabinet, English, comparison to American, 19, 54, 99-101 
Canada, 19, 99; single tax in, 44 
Capper, Governor, 39 

1,31 

225 



226 INDEX 

Cedric and Wulf, 119. 

Certificates, of gold and silver, 109, no 

Chicago, Committee on Publicity and Education, 213, 216, 217; government 
organization of, 41, 175-179 

Child labor, 130 

Children's Bureau, 168; welfare exhibit, Indiana needs, 213 

Citizen, creed, 174; desire to participate in government, 2, 97, in 

City, a day in Boston, 22-24; advance in city management, 38, 39; a public 
corporation, 2, 30, 31; beauty of, 69-72; budget, 47, 54, 180; commission 
plan in, 35; council, 35; debt, limit in, 45, 48; kinds of taxes in, 44, 45; 
health of, 27, 58-60; management, 28; manager of, 36, 37; mayor, 35; 
milk ordinances, 64, 181, 195; need for city planning, 72; organization, 26-28; 
organization of American City for business, 34, 48, 49; payment of bills, 
43; police department, 35; progress in efficiency in, 47; publishing accounts, 
48; real estate owned by German cities, 31, 32, 45, 46; referendum, initia- 
tive and recall in city, ^6; reluctance to pay taxes in, 46; school board, 
35; services given the city, 43; work of German Cities, 32, 33 

Civilization, progress of, 2, 97 

Civil Service, 39 

Cleveland, an effective railroad screen in, 72 

Commerce, Interstate Commission, 92; Secretary of, 100 

Commission government for cities, 35; for the state, 84-88; Interstate Com- 
merce, 92; state commissions, 79 

Compensation aids for workmen, 126; 27,129.. 

Competitive examinations, 39 

Congress, 98, 99 . , 

Conservation, children, 166-169; forests, 157-164; minerals, 164, 165 

Constitution, Amendments to U. S., 207-210; comparison with England, 94; 
state, 93, 94; U. S., 9, 91, 98, 197-210 

Continuation School idea, 142 

Continuing appropriation, 82- 

Cooperative movements, 152, 153, 156, 157 

County government, 81 

Court House, 80 

Courts, Circuit, 112; criticism of, 128-130; District, 112; Federal, 112; State, 78; 
Supreme, 91, 112, 113 

Dayton, city manager of, 36 

Debts, city, 45, 48; national, 104, 106; state, 83, 210 

Democracy, 4; England's growth in, 6-9, 12, 14, 16, 19; relation of Industrial 
Revolution to, 10 



INDEX 227 

Disease, hotbeds, 63, 64 
Dresden, gas tanks in, 71 

Education, changed views, 138-140; false ideas of, 138; for civic affairs, 136-138; 
growth of public schools, 134-136; need of general, 132-134; public service 
training, 39; state control of, 79, 81, 134; struggle of women for, 135, 
136 

Efficiency, aids, 48-55; Gary schools an example, 143-147; German 'cities, ex- 
amples in, 45, 46; through commissions, 90,92; through government, 19; how 
reached, 19; increasing in public business, 47; in farming, 150-156; in house- 
keeping, 147-149; in occupations, 148-149; in school, 143; in training man- 
agers of public business, 39; in work of women, 152; lack of, 48; planning, 
72; ways of securing, 168, 169 

Election, primary, 88. 

Electors, 87, 98, 99 

Eliot, Charles W., 27 

Elyria, Ohio, health ordinances, 181, 194 

Ely, Richard T., 32 

Employees', working conditions in Australia protected by tariff, 103 

Employer's Liability, 124, 125 

English, budget, 82, 101; pensions, 129 

English, cabinet, 18, 54, 82, 101; form of government, 94 

Evans, Arthur M., 87 

Expert service in government, attempts to supply the need, 36-40; need of, 
27-30 

Extension work by universities, 140 

Factories, growth of, n; influenced by industrial revolution, 12 

Family, influenced by industrial revolution, 13 

Fargo, N. D., public hygiene ordinances, 193 

Farmers, organizations of, 150-156 

Federal government, borrowing money, 106; branch offices, 114; courts 112; 
currency and banking, 108-111; debt of, 106; health protection, 105-108; 
laws in regard to the immigrant, 1 1 1 , 117; payment of bills, 101-106 

Fire, causes of, 216; " Don'ts," 215; department, 41; forest, 164; losses, 164, 
214, 217; prevention, 41, 165, 214; prevention costs, 164. 

Flushing, N. Y., High School, 137 

Forestry, 164; demand for expert forestry in the United States, 158; destruc- 
tion of forests, 157, 158, 164; in Germany, 160-163; i n Prussia, 158, 160. 

Forest Service, U. S., 159 

Franchise, 36 



228 INDEX 

Galveston, commission plan of government, 35 

Garbage, 27, 63 

Gary Schools, efficiency in, 143-147. 

George, David Lloyd, 17 

Germany, business methods of cities of, 33; city employees experts, 34; city 

management plan, 37; city planning in, 68-72; cleanliness in cities of, 66; 

fire losses in, 216; forestry in, 158-163; land holding in cities of, 45, 46; 

workingmen's insurance in, 129 
Gold, certificates, 109; free coinage of, 109 
Governor of state, 78 
Greenbacks, no 

Hague Tribunal, 11$ 

Harvard, John, 134 

Health, 26, 57-65; creed, 212; infant, 166-169; measures of protection by the 
United States, 106, 108; ordinances, 181-197; United States assists states, 
105-108; United States Bureau of Public Health, 106, 108; United States 
Pure Food Law, 106, 108 

Hodges, Governor, commission plan of state government, 83-86; 90 

Home Rule for Ireland, 17 

Housekeeping efficiency, 147-149 

House of Commons, 12, 17, 18, 116 

House of Lords, 17, 18 

Houston, Texas, commission form of government, 36; Junior High School, 134 

Howe, Frederic C, on city building, 69-71 

Immigrants, 106, in, 117, 137, 140, 143 

Import duties, 101-104 

Income tax, 104 

Indiana, fire marshal, publicity literature, 214; housing law, 196; needs, 92, 93, 

213 
Industrial accidents, 93 
Industrial Commissions, 92, 93, 126, 129 
Industrial revolution, definition of, 10; effects and results, 12, 26; influence 

on political revolution, 10, 11; relation to the vote 11; relation to home, 

factory life and living conditions, 13, 123-125 
Initiative, 36 

Insurance, in Germany, 129; workingmen's, 123, 125 
Interior, Department of the, 100 
Interstate Commerce Commission, 92 
Iowa, commission government in cities of, 36 
Irrigation, projects, 106 



INDEX 229 

Judges, mustrated by Cedric and Wulf, 119-125; suggestions as to, 128 

Jury, trial by, 120, 121, 128 

Justice, 119; for workmen, 125-129; for women, 14, 135, 136; in education, 130; 
in labor laws for children, 129, 130; justice through laws, 129, 130; justice 
through the courts, 112; through world court, 114, 115; suggested reforms 
in, 128-130 

Kansas, legislation, 83; some suggestions for reform from, 39, 84-86 

Labor, department of, 100 

Land, municipal ownership of, 31, 32, 45-46 

Laws, making of, 90-92; experts in law making, 92; improvement in, 92 

Legislature, appropriations by, 82, 83; New York, 126-128; scope of work ;,-, 

78; suggestions for reform in, 84-90; Wisconsin, 92 
Liberal Party in England, 17 
Liquor tax, 104 
Local government, 26, 81, 97 
Los Angeles, school as a voting place, 13 

Madison, Wis., Maypole dance in, 141 

Manufacturers, protective tariff for, 101-103 

Marketing, 150-156; cost of marketing milk, 153-156; ordinances regarding 

milk, 181-189, 195 
Markets, municipal, 31 
Mayor, 34, 35 

Meat inspection, 105, 107, 108; ordinance regarding, 194 
Merit system, 39 

Milk, 58-61; ordinances, 181-189, 195; Philadelphia Show, 62, 167 
Milwaukee, budget show, 61 
Minimum wage legislation, 130 
Ministry, responsible in England, 19, 101 
Minneapolis, certified milk for, 60 
Money, 108-111; 116, 117 
Mothers' pensions, 130 

Nashville, Tenn., public hygiene ordinance, 194 
National Bank, in 
Naturalization, in, 117 
Navy, Department, 100; the, 115 

New York City, budget, 180; budget exhibit, 49; municipal building, 29; rail- 
road bridge in, 68 
New York State, legislation, 126-128 



2 3 o INDEX 

New Zealand, pensions, 129 

Occupation, choosing of, 148, 149 

Old age pensions, 123, 129 

Ordinances, for street and highway planting, 74, 75; public health, 181-189; 

public hygiene, 190-195 
Organization, farmers', 151-153; for economy in Europe, 156; form of, 27-30; 

need for, 2, 26; need for city and country, 26, 27; of city for business, 34, 35 

Panama Canal, 106, 115 

Paris, railroad bridge in, 68 

Parliament, 14, 17, 18, 82, 101 

Parties, platforms, 16, 173-175, 225; political, 99, 173, 174 

Peace, world, 97/ 114 

Pensions, military, 166; mothers', 130; old age, 123, 129 

Peoples' Power League, 88, 89 

Philadelphia, milk show, 62, 167 

Platforms (see Parties) 

Playground exhibition, 139 

Police Department, city, 35 

Post-office, department, 98, 100 

Primary, election, 88 

Prime Minister, 99 

President, 16, 98, 112 

Press, 20, 86 

Public health, state control, 79; United States control, 105-108 

Publicity, through magazines, clubs, newspapers. 20, 48-55 

Public schools, 134, 139, 141 

Public service, training for, 39, 40 

Public Utilities, 79 

Pure Food Laws, United States, 106, 108 

Recall, 36, 128 

Redlands, Cal., ordinance on street and highway planting, 74 

Referendum, 36, 1 28 

Reform, in expert government service, 35-37; legislation, 84-86, 90; move- 
ments, 172 

Representation, demands for, 11, 12; defects, 9; efforts made for, 12; for prop- 
erty owners in town, 8; growth of, 8; objection to, 8 

Responsible government, 99, 101 

Resolutions for pupils, 75 

Revenue tariff, 104; United States, 101-106 



INDEX 231 

Roanoke, Va., health ordinances, 190 

Rochester, N. Y., Civic Improvement Committee, 66; gas tanks in, 70 

Russia, Prohibition in, 143 

Saginaw, Mich., public hygiene ordinances, 194 

Saskatchewan, taxes in, 44 

St. Paul, Minn., certified milk for, 60 

Schools, History of, 132-142 

Seattle, public hygiene ordinances, 192 

Self government, 4 

Short ballot, 88, 90 

Silver money, no; certificates, 109 

Single tax in Canada, 44 

State widening activities, 3 

State, branch office buildings, 80; bulletins, 168; debts, 210; expenses of, 83; 
finance of, 81; improvement in laws, 129, 130; legal functions, 91; organized 
action with U. S., 97; reform in legislation of. 84-90; short ballot, 87-90; 
state commission, 79; state schools, 134; work of, 79-81 

Streets, 66, 67 

Suffrage, demand for by women, 12, 13; demand for by working class, 11,12; 
demand for all over the world, 14; for landowners in England, 7; for towns- 
men, 8 

Tariff, 101-104 

Tax, assessors, 44; in Canada, 44; income, 104; in England, 17; inheritance. 17; 
for services, 43 ; reluctance to pay, 46; on domestic manufactures as tobacco 
and liquor, 104; on imports, 101-104; tariff in Australia, 103; budget, 47; 
levy, 48; war, 104 

Tenements, 49 

Tobacco tax, 104 

Township, 81 

Training managers of our public business, 39, 40 

Trees, ordinances of Redlands, California, 74; sec Forestry 

Tuberculosis, 65 

Tucker, Josiah, ix, 21, 22, 97 

Typhoid fever, 63 

Ulm, Germany, 31,32 

United States, a business organization, 112, 113; branch offices, 112, 114; Cab- 
inet, 99-100; Congress, 98, 99; Constitution, 98, 197-210; courts, 112; 
supervision of health, 106, 108; money, 108-111; ways of borrowing money. 
104-106; ways of raising money, 101-104 



232 INDEX 

United States Executive, 98 

Universities, extension system of, 140; origin of, 134, 135; training for public 
sen-ice in, 39 

Veto, president's, 16; suspensive veto of House of Lords, 17 
Vocational Education, 132-138 

Vote, desire for, 14; education an aid to the voter, 136; result of efforts, 12; 
struggle for, 11; the school as a voting place, 13; vote in parties, 16 

Wager of battle, 119, 122 

Wages, minimum wage laws, 130; protected by tariff in Australia, 103 

War, 166; department, 100; tax, 104 

Waste, human life, 166-169; mineral, 164-165; vegetable, 157, 158, 159 

Wisconsin, capitol, 77; University, 149 

Women, desire for vote, 12; organization for efficiency, 13, 147, 152; struggle 

for education, 135, 136; work, 13 
Workingmen's homes, 31, 32 
Workmen's compensation, 126, 127, 129 



